Sample Page

Andranik Ozanian,^[B] commonly known as General Andranik^[15][C] or simply Andranik^[D] (25 February 1865 – 31 August 1927),^[E] was an Armenian military commander and statesman, widely regarded as the preeminent fedayi^[1][16][18] and a seminal figure of the Armenian national liberation movement.^[19]

Andranik entered the armed struggle against the Ottoman government and Kurdish irregulars in the late 1880s. After joining the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun), he led various fedayi units in defense of the Armenian peasantry within their ancestral lands in Western Armenia. Following the suppressed Sasun uprising, he went into exile, eventually breaking with the Dashnaktsutyun in 1907 over its brief rapprochement with the Young Turks—the faction that would later orchestrate the Armenian genocide. His military reputation grew during the First Balkan War (1912–1913), where he and Garegin Nzhdeh commanded a volunteer auxiliary within the Bulgarian army against Ottoman forces.

At the outbreak of World War I, Andranik was appointed commander of the first Armenian volunteer battalion under the Russian Imperial Army. He played a pivotal role in the capture of the Van region, but the Revolution of 1917 and subsequent Russian withdrawal left Armenian forces critically isolated. Despite a resolute defense of Erzurum in early 1918, logistical failures and the threat of encirclement forced his retreat. Although the Battle of Sardarabad successfully halted the Turkish advance toward Yerevan, Andranik broke with the newly formed Armenian National Council. He refused to recognize the First Republic of Armenia or the Treaty of Batum, viewing the new state as a truncated capitulation that abandoned Western Armenia. Acting independently, he led a campaign in Zangezur, successfully repelling Azerbaijani and Turkish incursions to keep the region within Armenian control.^[20]

Andranik left Armenia in 1919 following continued friction with the Republican government, dedicating his remaining years to organizing relief for Armenian refugees across Europe and the United States. He settled in Fresno, California, in 1922 and died there in 1927. Today, he is venerated as a national hero; his image is immortalized in numerous monuments, poems, and novels, underscoring his status as a legendary archetype of Armenian resistance.^[21]

Andranik Ozanian was born on 25 February 1865 in the town of Shabin-Karahisar (Şebinkarahisar), in the Sivas Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire, to Mariam and Toros Ozanian.^[22][23] Andranik means “firstborn” in Armenian. His paternal ancestors had migrated from the nearby village of Ozan (now Ozanlı) in the early 18th century and settled in Shabin-Karahisar to escape persecution by the Turks.^[23] They took the surname Ozanian in honor of their hometown. Andranik lost his mother when he was just one year old and was raised by his elder sister, Nazeli. He attended the local Musheghian School from 1875 to 1882, after which he joined his father’s carpentry shop.^[24] He married at 17, but his wife died a year later while giving birth to their son, who also passed away shortly thereafter.^[23]

The plight of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire worsened under the reign of Abdul Hamid II.^[25] In 1882, Andranik was arrested for assaulting a Turkish gendarme for mistreating Armenians. With the help of his friends, he escaped from prison. He settled in the Ottoman capital Constantinople in 1884 and stayed there until 1886, working as a carpenter.^[26] He began his revolutionary activities in 1888 in the province of Sivas.^[27][28] Andranik joined the Hunchak party in 1891.^[29] He was arrested in 1892 for taking part in the assassination of Constantinople’s police chief, Yusuf Mehmed Bey—known for his anti-Armenianism—on 9 February.^[30] Andranik once again escaped from prison.^[26] In 1892, he joined the newly created Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or Dashnaktsutyun).^[27][28] During the Hamidian massacres, Andranik with other fedayi defended the Armenian villages of Mush and Sasun from attacks of the Turks and the Kurdish Hamidiye units.^[28][31] The massacres, which occurred between 1894 and 1896 and are named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II, killed between 80,000 and 300,000 people.^[32]

In 1897, Andranik traveled to Tiflis—then the largest city of the Caucasus and a major center of Armenian culture at the time—where the ARF headquarters was located.^[28] Andranik returned to Turkish Armenia “entrusted with extensive powers, and with a large supply of arms” for the fedayi.^[31] Several dozen Russian Armenians joined him, with whom he went to the Mush-Sasun area where Aghbiur Serob was operating.^[33] Serob’s forces had already established semi-independent Armenian areas by expelling the Ottoman government representatives.^[19]

In 1899, the Armenian resistance suffered a significant blow when Aghbiur Serob, the preeminent leader of the fedayi, was killed by the Kurdish chieftain Bushare Khalil Bey.^[28] Bey compounded this act months later with a brutal campaign in the village of Talvorik, within the Sasun region, where his forces murdered a priest, two young men, and twenty-five women and children.^[33] In the wake of Serob’s death, Andranik assumed command of the Armenian irregulars in the Mush-Sasun region of Western Armenia—a rugged territory inhabited by a “warlike semi-independent Armenian peasantry.”^[28][19] To avenge Serob and the villagers of Talvorik, Andranik tracked and captured Bey; he reportedly decapitated the chieftain and seized the medal previously bestowed upon him by Sultan Abdul Hamid II.^[33][34][31] This act of retribution cemented Andranik’s reputation and established his undisputed authority among the fedayi.^[35]

While small contingents of fedayi maintained a persistent armed struggle against the Ottoman state and hostile Kurdish tribes, the geopolitical situation in Western Armenia continued to deteriorate. The Great Powers remained largely indifferent to the Armenian Question, leaving Article 61 of the 1878 Treaty of Berlin a dead letter. The article had mandated that the Ottoman government “carry out, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians,” and promised to “guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds.”^[36] However, as historian Christopher J. Walker notes, European diplomatic attention was diverted by the crisis in Macedonia, and Imperial Russia was “in no mood for reactivating the Armenian question.”^[37]

In November 1901, the fedayi engaged Ottoman forces in the Battle of Holy Apostles Monastery, a confrontation that became a defining episode of Andranik’s revolutionary career. Seeking to neutralize Andranik’s burgeoning influence in the region, the Ottoman government dispatched a force of over 5,000 soldiers to apprehend him and his band. By early November, a regiment of approximately 1,200 men under the command of Ferikh Pasha and Ali Pasha had successfully tracked and encircled Andranik and 50 of his followers within the fortified walls of the Arakelots (Holy Apostles) Monastery near Mush. Faced with the monastery’s formidable defenses, the Turkish generals initiated negotiations, demanding the surrender of the fedayi.^[38]

The siege lasted for weeks, punctuated by stalled negotiations involving Armenian clergy, the headman of Mush, and several foreign consuls. Andranik utilized the standoff to draw international attention to the plight of the Armenian peasantry and to bolster the morale of the oppressed population in the eastern provinces.^[39] Under the cover of night, Andranik and his companions eventually eluded the blockade, escaping in small groups. According to Leon Trotsky, Andranik staged a daring exit: disguised in the uniform of a Turkish officer, he reportedly “went the rounds of the entire guard, talking to them in excellent Turkish,” while surreptitiously guiding his men through the enemy lines.^[28][40]

This successful breakthrough elevated Andranik to a position of legendary stature among the provincial Armenian population.^[15][41] His popularity reached such heights that his subordinates and the local peasantry began to refer to him affectionately and reverently by his first name alone.^[39] Reflecting on this period, Trotsky observed that Andranik’s “political thinking took shape in a setting of Carbonarist activity and diplomatic intrigue.”^[31]

In 1903, Andranik formally petitioned the Ottoman government to cease the systemic harassment of Armenians and to implement the long-promised reforms in the Armenian provinces.^[42] At the time, the concentration of fedayi forces centered on the rugged terrain of Sasun, an area encompassing approximately 12,000 km² (4,600 sq mi). With an overwhelming Armenian majority—consisting of 1,769 Armenian households against 155 Kurdish ones—the region served as a vital operational base for the resistance.^[43] By late 1903, Sasun was in a “state of revolutionary turmoil,” driven by a local populace that had refused to pay imperial taxes for seven consecutive years.^[19][44]

To coordinate the defense of these villages against anticipated Ottoman and Kurdish incursions, Andranik and several dozen fedayi—including notable leaders such as Hrayr and Sebouh—convened at the village of Gelieguzan. A strategic divide emerged during the meeting: Andranik advocated for a broad, synchronized uprising across Taron and Vaspurakan, while Hrayr, citing a critical lack of resources, argued for a limited, local insurrection centered in Sasun. The council ultimately adopted Hrayr’s conservative approach, and Andranik was appointed the supreme commander of the uprising.^[45][44]

Hostilities commenced in January 1904 with skirmishes between the fedayi and state-supported Kurdish irregulars.^[45] In early April, the Ottoman government launched a massive offensive, deploying an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 regular soldiers and 7,000 Kurdish irregulars against a meager force of 100 to 200 fedayi and roughly 1,000 local volunteers.^[46][47] During the ensuing heavy fighting, Hrayr was killed, leaving Andranik to carry on the resistance.^[48] Despite their tenacity, the Armenians were overwhelmed by the superior numbers and heavy artillery of the Ottoman forces. By May 1904, the uprising was suppressed, leaving behind a devastating humanitarian toll; between 7,000 and 10,000 civilians were killed, 9,000 were left homeless, and 4,000 villagers were forced into internal exile.^[49][46][19]

Historian Christopher J. Walker observed that while the fedayi came “near to organising an uprising and shaking Ottoman power in Armenia”, territorial loss was unthinkable for the Empire given Russia’s refusal to intervene.^[37] Leon Trotsky noted that the conflict went largely ignored by the Great Powers, whose attention was then fixed on the Russo-Japanese War.^[46] In a final tactical retreat in late 1904, Andranik and his surviving men reached Lake Van, crossing to Aghtamar Island before escaping to Persia via Van.^[50][46] According to Trotsky, this exodus was a calculated effort to prevent further reprisal killings of civilians, whereas Tsatur Aghayan viewed it as a strategic move to “gather new resources” for the next phase of the struggle.^[26][46] They left behind, in Walker’s words, “little more than a heroic memory.”^[19]

Following his departure from Persia, Andranik traveled to the Caucasus,^[28] where he consulted with Armenian leadership in Baku and Tiflis. He subsequently left Russia for Europe, dedicating himself to international advocacy for the Armenian national liberation struggle.^[26][50] In 1906, while in Geneva, he published a treatise on military tactics^[51] that drew heavily from his strategic experiences during the 1904 Sasun uprising.^[41]

In early 1907, Andranik traveled to Vienna to attend the fourth Congress of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF). Since 1902, the ARF had been engaged in tentative collaborations with Turkish émigré political circles in Europe; during the Vienna Congress, the party formally approved negotiations with the Young Turks—the faction that would later orchestrate the Armenian genocide—aimed at the shared goal of overthrowing Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Andranik fundamentally denounced this rapprochement, viewing any partnership with the Young Turks as a strategic and moral failure, and formally severed his ties with the party.^[19][52] This departure proved to be permanent; Andranik never returned to the ARF, and his deep-seated mistrust of the party’s leadership would immensely complicate his relations with the Armenian government during the aftermath of the Caucasus campaign and the short-lived First Republic.^[19]

Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the ARF attempted to reconcile with Andranik, inviting him to relocate to Constantinople and stand for election to the Ottoman parliament. He rejected the offer, reportedly stating, “I don’t want to sit there and do nothing”.^[22][53] Disillusioned by the political landscape, Andranik withdrew from active military and political affairs for several years, seeking a quieter life in Sofia, Bulgaria.

In 1907, Andranik settled in Sofia, where he established ties with the leadership of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, including the prominent revolutionary Boris Sarafov. The two leaders pledged to cooperate in their shared struggle for the liberation of the oppressed Armenian and Macedonian peoples.^[46][54] During the First Balkan War (1912–1913), Andranik spearheaded a company of 230 Armenian volunteers as part of the Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Volunteer Corps, serving under Aleksandar Protogerov within the Bulgarian army against the Ottoman Empire.^[28][55][56] He shared command of the unit with Garegin Nzhdeh.^[57] Paradoxically, as Andranik fought for the Bulgarians, an estimated 8,000 Armenians were serving on the opposing side within the Ottoman military.^[58]

Andranik, commissioned as a first lieutenant by the Bulgarian government, distinguished himself in several key engagements.^[50] Most notably, during the Battle of Merhamli, his unit played a critical role in the capture of the Turkish commander Yaver Pasha.^[59][60] For his conduct, he was awarded the Order of Bravery by General Protogerov in 1913.^[60][61]

Despite these accolades, Andranik took a different path than Nzhdeh as the geopolitical situation shifted. While Nzhdeh remained loyal to the Bulgarian military during the ensuing Second Balkan War, Andranik viewed the brewing conflict between Bulgaria and its former Serbian and Greek allies as a departure from the war’s original liberatory purpose. He disbanded his company in May 1913,^[62] and “retired to a village near Varna, and lived as a farmer until August 1914″.^[50]

With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Andranik left his quiet life in Bulgaria to return to Russia.^[28] Recognizing his experience and influence, the Russian government appointed him commander of the first Armenian volunteer battalion. From November 1914 to August 1915, he spearheaded this unit of approximately 1,200 volunteers within the Imperial Russian Army during the Caucasus Campaign.^[63][60] Andranik’s battalion particularly distinguished itself at the Battle of Dilman in April 1915; the victory there, achieved alongside Russian forces under General Tovmas Nazarbekian, successfully halted the Ottoman attempt to invade the Caucasus through Iranian Azerbaijan.^[28][60][64]

As the military campaign progressed, the Armenian genocide was being systematically carried out across the Ottoman Empire.^[64] By the end of the conflict, the centuries-old Armenian presence in Western Armenia was effectively eradicated, with an estimated 1.5 million Armenians dead and the survivors driven into permanent exile.^[65][66] Amidst this catastrophe, the city of Van became a focal point of resistance. Under the leadership of Aram Manukian, local Armenians withstood a prolonged Ottoman siege until the arrival of the Armenian volunteer units.^[67][68] Andranik entered the liberated city on 19 May 1915, subsequently assisting the Russian army in securing Shatakh, Moks, and Tatvan along the southern shores of Lake Van.^[64][69]

Despite these tactical successes, the political landscape shifted in 1916. As the Russian military consolidated its grip on the Armenian plateau, the Imperial government’s attitude toward its Armenian allies cooled.^[70] Seeking to annex Western Armenia as an integral part of Russia—and potentially repopulating the region with Cossacks and Russian peasants—the government ordered the demobilization of the volunteer battalions and suppressed Armenian civic activities.^[71] Historian Richard Hovannisian noted that once the Russian armies were in firm control, “there was no longer any need to expend niceties upon the Armenians”.^[70] Deeply disillusioned by this shift and the realization that Russia was utilizing Armenian blood for its own imperial expansion, Andranik resigned his command and left the front in July 1916.^[68] His service had been highly regarded by his superiors; Lieutenant General Theodore G. Chernozubov praised him as a “brave and experienced chief” who commanded immense prestige among his men.^[72]

The February Revolution of 1917 was welcomed by the Armenian population, as it signaled the end of the autocratic Romanov rule.^[72] In the ensuing administrative shift, the Russian Provisional Government established the Special Transcaucasian Committee (OZAKOM) to manage the South Caucasus.^[70] During this period of relative optimism, Andranik founded the non-partisan newspaper Hayastan (Armenia) in Tiflis, with writer Vahan Totovents serving as editor.^[72][73][74] Through late 1917, Andranik remained in the South Caucasus, prioritizing humanitarian relief for the massive influx of Armenian refugees.^[68] Although a May 1917 decree had placed Turkish Armenia under a promising civil administration, the Russian military began a steady disintegration as war-weary soldiers deserted the front en masse to return home.^[70]

The situation reached a breaking point following the October Revolution. The subsequent Armistice of Erzincan, signed on 5 December 1917, officially ended hostilities between Bolshevik Russia and the Ottoman Empire, but it also accelerated the chaotic Russian withdrawal.^[75] While the Soviet government briefly acknowledged the Armenian right to self-determination in January 1918, the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918 effectively nullified these hopes. Russia formally ceded Western Armenia to the Ottoman Empire to consolidate its resources for the burgeoning Russian Civil War.^[76]

In an attempt to fill the vacuum left by the deserting Russian divisions, the Transcaucasian Commissariat authorized the formation of an Armenian Army Corps. Under the overall command of General Nazarbekian, the Corps attempted to hold a 300-mile front stretching from Van to Erzincan. Andranik, promoted to the rank of major-general by the Caucasus Front command, was appointed to lead the Corps’ Western Armenian division.^[4][22] Despite his leadership, the defense was logistically impossible; as historian Richard Hovannisian observed, a few thousand volunteers were now tasked with securing a frontier previously guarded by half a million Russian regulars.^[77][78] After a desperate attempt to hold Erzurum, the city fell to the numerically superior Ottoman forces on 12 March 1918, forcing a general Armenian evacuation.^[78][28]

As the Ottoman offensive continued through March and April, the temporary Armenian administration in Turkish Armenia was systematically dismantled, extinguishing the brief hopes raised by the revolution.^[78] Following the loss of Erzurum, Andranik conducted a fighting retreat through Kars, Alexandropol, and Jalaloghly, eventually arriving in Dsegh by 18 May.^[22][79] By early April, Turkish forces had reached the pre-war international borders, moving the theater of war into Russian Armenia itself.^[80] Due to his location and the disruption of communications, Andranik and his unit were unable to participate in the decisive May battles at Sardarabad, Abaran, and Karakilisa.^[79]

Following the successful containment of Ottoman forces at Sardarabad, the Armenian National Council declared the independence of the Russian Armenian territories on 28 May 1918. Andranik, however, vehemently condemned this declaration and formally denounced the Dashnaktsutyun leadership.^[81] Estranged from the party, he began to favor a strategic alignment with Bolshevik Russia over the fledgling Republic.^[28][79] Andranik refused to recognize the legitimacy of the Republic of Armenia, which he dismissed as little more than “a pawn in the grip of [Ottoman] Turkey”.^[82] He characterized the signing of the Treaty of Batum—in which the Ottoman Empire recognized a significantly truncated Armenia under humiliating conditions—as an act of high treason.^[82] Historian Christopher Walker notes that many Western Armenians shared this sentiment, viewing the new state as merely “a dusty province” that lacked the very territories in Turkish Armenia whose liberation they had sought for four decades.^[83]

In early June 1918, Andranik departed from Dilijan accompanied by thousands of refugees. Their arduous trek took them through Sevan, Nor Bayazet, and Vayots Dzor, eventually reaching Nakhichevan on 17 June.^[22] From there, he attempted to provide aid to Armenian refugees from Van currently situated in Khoy, Iran. His ultimate objective was to effect a junction with British forces operating in northern Iran; however, after encountering a formidable Ottoman presence, he was forced to retreat back to Nakhichevan.^[22][82] In a defiant political move on 14 July 1918, Andranik proclaimed Nakhichevan an integral part of Soviet Russia—a declaration that was warmly received by both Vladimir Lenin and the Armenian Bolshevik leader Stepan Shahumyan.^[28][84]

As Ottoman forces advanced toward Nakhichevan, Andranik and his Special Striking Division transitioned to the rugged, mountainous terrain of Zangezur to establish a strategic defense.^[22] By mid-1918, the socio-political situation in the region had reached a nadir as relations between the Armenian and Azerbaijani populations collapsed.^[85] Andranik arrived at this critical juncture accompanied by an estimated 30,000 refugees and a disciplined force of 3,000 to 5,000 men; by September, he had established effective administrative and military control over the district. Zangezur’s geographical position was of paramount importance, serving as the essential land bridge between Turkey and Azerbaijan. Under Andranik’s leadership, the region became one of the final redoubts of Armenian resistance following the perceived capitulation of the Treaty of Batum.^[82]

Operating within Zangezur, Andranik’s irregulars found themselves largely isolated, surrounded by Muslim villages that commanded the primary transit routes connecting the district’s disparate parts.^[82] According to historian Donald Bloxham, Andranik pursued a policy of transforming Zangezur into a demographically homogenous Armenian territory by destroying Muslim villages and systematically altering the ethnic composition of key areas.^[86] By late 1918, the Azerbaijani government formally accused Andranik of orchestrating massacres against Azerbaijani peasantry and demanded the immediate withdrawal of Armenian units. Conversely, Antranig Chalabian argues that Andranik’s presence was the sole factor preventing the complete annihilation of the sixty thousand Armenian inhabitants of Zangezur by Turko-Tatar forces, asserting that the General “did not massacre peaceful Tatars”.^[87][88]

Andranik’s independent operations drew a formal protest from the Ottoman General Halil Pasha, who threatened the Armenian government with military retaliation. In response, Prime Minister Hovhannes Katchaznouni maintained that the central government exercised no authority over Andranik or his autonomous forces, highlighting the persistent rift between the Republic’s diplomacy and Andranik’s revolutionary campaign.^[89]

Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and the signing of the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, Ottoman forces began their evacuation of the South Caucasus. By the end of October, Andranik’s Special Striking Division was concentrated on the border between Zangezur and Karabakh.^[90] Before launching an offensive to secure the region, Andranik sought formal assurances of support from the local Armenian population. In mid-November, however, he received a request from Karabakh Armenian officials to postpone his advance for ten days to facilitate negotiations with the region’s Muslim community. This delay, as historian Richard Hovannisian observes, “proved crucial”.^[90] When the offensive finally commenced in late November, Andranik’s forces pushed toward Shushi—the principal city and cultural heart of Karabakh—breaking through fierce Kurdish resistance at Abdallyar (Lachin) and surrounding villages along the way.^[90]

By early December, Andranik was within 40 km (25 miles) of Shushi when he was intercepted by a message from the British commander in Baku, General W. M. Thomson. The General requested Andranik’s immediate withdrawal, arguing that with the World War over, any further military action would jeopardize the “Armenian Question” at the upcoming 1919 Paris Peace Conference.^[91] Trusting in the diplomatic promises of the British, Andranik halted his campaign and returned to Zangezur.^[92]

The subsequent administration of the region was left to the Armenian Karabakh Council, which soon found itself at odds with the British mission. Upon his arrival in December, Thomson mandated that the Council restrict its activities to “local, nonpolitical matters”, a directive that fueled widespread Armenian discontent.^[91] To maintain order, Thomson appointed Khosrov bey Sultanov, described by contemporaries as an “ardent pan-Turkist“, as the governor of both Karabakh and Zangezur.^[92] Historian Christopher J. Walker contends that Karabakh remained under Azerbaijani jurisdiction throughout the subsequent Soviet period largely because of “Andranik’s trust of the word of a British officer”.^[93]

During the winter of 1918–1919, heavy snowfalls isolated Zangezur from both Karabakh and Yerevan, exacerbating a growing humanitarian crisis. The influx of refugees triggered widespread famine, epidemics, and hyperinflation within the district.^[94] In December 1918, Andranik withdrew from Karabakh to Goris, where he met with British officers who suggested his units remain in Zangezur for the winter. At a conference on 23 December, Armenian leaders concluded that the district could not sustain the refugee population until spring without outside assistance.^[95] They proposed repatriating over 15,000 refugees to the neighboring Nakhichevan district, which had been recently evacuated by Ottoman forces. While Major W. D. Gibbon arrived with limited funds donated by the Armenians in Baku, the relief was insufficient to meet the desperate needs of the displaced.^[96]

By late February 1919, Andranik prepared to leave Zangezur. He rejected a British proposal to depart via the Baku-Tiflis railway, opting instead for an arduous trek. On 22 March 1919, he led his remaining irregulars from Goris through the deep snowdrifts of Sisian and Daralagyaz toward the Ararat plain.^[95] After a three-week march, the force reached the railway station at Davalu. There, he was met by Dro, the Assistant Minister of Military Affairs, and Sargis Manasian, the Assistant Minister of Internal Affairs. Andranik flatly rejected their invitation to visit Yerevan; he remained convinced that the Dashnak administration had betrayed the Armenian cause and bore responsibility for the destruction of his homeland.^[96] His departure left Zangezur significantly more vulnerable to Azerbaijani incursions, despite previous requests from local forces for reinforcement from the central government.

On 13 April 1919, Andranik arrived in Etchmiadzin, the spiritual center of the Armenian people. The division, which had once numbered 5,000, had dwindled to 1,350 soldiers.^[97][98] Embittered by the diplomatic maneuvers of the British and his irreconcilable differences with the Armenian government, Andranik chose to disband his unit. In a symbolic gesture of finality, he surrendered his weapons and personal belongings to Catholicos George V.^[99] On 27 April, he left Etchmiadzin by special train for Tiflis, accompanied by fifteen officers. At every station, massive crowds gathered to catch a glimpse of the man they considered a national hero.^[97] Upon reaching Tiflis, he met with Georgian Foreign Minister Evgeni Gegechkori to discuss the recent Georgian–Armenian War, with the poet Hovhannes Tumanyan serving as their interpreter.^[99] This journey marked the last time Andranik would set foot in Armenia.

From 1919 to 1922, Andranik traveled around Europe and the United States seeking support for the Armenian refugees. He visited Paris and London, where he tried to persuade the Allied powers to occupy Turkish Armenia.^[28] In 1919, during his visit to France, Andranik was bestowed the title of Legion of Honor Officier by President Raymond Poincaré.^[100][101] In late 1919, Andranik led a delegation to the United States to lobby its support for a mandate for Armenia and fund-raising for the Armenian army.^{[28][102][103]} He was accompanied by General Jaques Bagratuni and Hovhannes Katchaznouni.^[104] In Fresno, he directed a campaign which raised US$500,000 for the relief of Armenian refugees.^[105]

When he returned to Europe, Andranik married Nevarte Kurkjian in Paris on 15 May 1922 with Boghos Nubar serving as their best man.^[106] Andranik and Nevarte moved to the United States and settled in Fresno, California in 1922.^[107] In his 1936 short story, Antranik of Armenia, Armenian-American writer William Saroyan described Andranik’s arrival. He wrote, “It looked as if all Armenians of California were at the Southern Pacific depot at the day he arrived.” He said Andranik “was a man of about fifty in a neat Armenians suit of clothes. He was a little under six feet tall, very solid and very strong. He had an old-style Armenian mustache that was white. The expression of his face was both ferocious and kind.”^[108] Andranik lived with the family of Armen Alchian, who later became a prominent economist, in Fresno for several months.^[109] In his novel Call of the Plowmen («Ռանչպարների կանչը», 1979), where Andranik is called Shapinand, Khachik Dashtents describes his life in Fresno, where he spend his free time making small wooden chairs.^[110]

In February 1926, Andranik left Fresno to reside in San Francisco in an unsuccessful attempt to regain his health.^[105] According to his death certificate found in the Butte County, California records, Andranik died from angina on 31 August 1927 at Richardson Springs, California.^[111][112] On 7 September 1927, thousands paid their final respects. A farewell service was given at the Holy Trinity Church, from where the funeral procession headed to the Ararat Cemetery.^{[113] [114]} On October 9 more than 2,500 members of the Armenian community attended memorial services at Carnegie Hall in New York.^[115]

After his first funeral, it was planned to take Andranik’s remains to Armenia for final burial; however, when they arrived in France, the Soviet authorities refused permission to allow his remains to enter Soviet Armenia.^[17][28] Instead they remained in France and, after a second funeral service held in the Armenian Church of Paris, were buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris on 29 January 1928.^[116][117] In early 2000, the Armenian and French governments arranged the transfer of Andranik’s body from Paris to Yerevan. Asbarez wrote that the transfer was initiated by Armenia’s Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsyan.^[118] Andranik’s body was moved to Armenia on 17 February 2000.^[119] It was placed in the Sport & Concert Complex in Yerevan for two days and was then taken to Etchmiadzin Cathedral, where Karekin II officiated the funeral service.^[118] Andranik was re-interred at Yerablur military cemetery in Yerevan on 20 February 2000, next to Vazgen Sargsyan.^{[118][120][121]} In his speech during the reburial ceremony, Armenia’s President Robert Kocharyan described Andranik as “one of the greatest sons of the Armenian nation.”^[122] Prime Minister Aram Sargsyan, Foreign Minister Vartan Oskanian, and one of Andranik’s soldiers, 102-year-old Grigor Ghazarian, were also in attendance.^[123] A memorial was built on his grave with the phrase Zoravar Hayots—”General of the Armenians”—engraved on it.

Andranik was considered a hero during his lifetime.^[125][126] The Literary Digest described Andranik in 1920 as “the Armenian’s Robin Hood, Garibaldi, and Washington, all in one.”^[127] The Independent wrote that he is “worshiped by his countrymen for his heroic fighting in their defense against the Turks.”^[128] Andranik was praised by the noted Armenian writer Hovhannes Tumanyan,^[72] while Armenian Bolshevik Anastas Mikoyan wrote in his memoirs that “the name Andranik was surrounded by halo of glory.”^[129] Gerard Libaridian described Andranik as the “most famous of the Armenian guerrilla fighters, although not necessarily the most important. He represented the emerging new image of the Armenian who could fight.”^[130]

Andranik is considered a national hero among Armenians worldwide.^{[120][131][132]} He is also seen as a legendary figure in Armenian culture.^[22][133] In a series of polls in Armenia from 2006 to 2008, Andranik consistently placed second after Vazgen Sargsyan in the list of Armenian national heroes and leaders.^[134]

During the Soviet period, his legacy and those of other Armenian national heroes were diminished and “any reference to them would be dangerous since they represented the strive for independence,” especially prior to the Khrushchev Thaw.^[135] Paruyr Sevak, a prominent Soviet Armenian author, wrote an essay about Andranik in 1963 after reading one of his soldier’s notes. Sevak wrote that his generation knew “little about Andranik, almost nothing.” He continued, “knowing nothing about Andranik means to know nothing about modern Armenian history.”^[136] In 1965, Andranik’s 100th anniversary was celebrated in Soviet Armenia.^[22]

Andranik’s activities have attracted occasional criticism. He has generally been seen as a pro-Russian (and pro-Soviet) figure;^[137][79] prompting the scholar-turned-political activist Rafael Ishkhanyan to criticize him for constant reliance on Russia.^[138] Ishkhanyan characterized Andranik and Hakob Zavriev as leaders of the stream within Armenian political thought unconditionally reliant on Russia. He contrasted them with Aram Manukian and his self-reliant stance.^[138] Ruben Angaladyan voiced his opposition to the erection of a statue of Andranik in Yerevan, arguing that he does not deserve one in the national capital because he did not contribute substantially to the First Republic and ultimately left Armenia. While Angaladyan acknowledges Andranik as a popular hero, he considers it inappropriate to call him a national hero.^[139]

Statues and memorials of Andranik have been erected around the world, including in Bucharest, Romania (1936),^[140] Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris (1945), Melkonian Educational Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus (1990),^[141] Le Plessis-Robinson, Paris (2005),^[142][143] Varna, Bulgaria (2011),^[144] and Armavir, Russia.^[145][146] A memorial exists in Richardson Springs, California, where Andranik died.^[147] In May 2011, a statue of Andranik was erected in Volonka village near Sochi, Russia;^[148] however, it was removed the same day, apparently under pressure from Turkey, which earlier announced that they would boycott the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics if the statue remained standing.^[149][150]

The first statue of Andranik in Armenia was erected in 1967 in the village of Ujan.^[151][152] Another early statue in Armenia was erected in Voskehask, near Gyumri, in 1969.^[153] More statues have been erected after Armenia’s independence from the Soviet Union in 1991; three of which can be found in the Armenian capital of Yerevan—in Malatia-Sebastia district (2000); near the St. Gregory Cathedral (by Ara Shiraz, 2002); and outside the Fedayi Movement Museum (2006) in the Armenian capital Yerevan.^[154] Elsewhere in Armenia, Andranik’s statues stand in Voskevan and Navur villages of Tavush, in Gyumri‘s Victory Park (1994), Arteni, and Angeghakot, among other places.^{[155][156][157][158]}

Numerous streets and squares both inside and outside Armenia, including in Córdoba, Argentina,^[159] Plovdiv^[160] and Varna^[161] in Bulgaria, Meudon, Paris^[162][163] and a section of Connecticut Route 314 state highway running entirely within Wethersfield, Connecticut^[164] are named after Andranik. General Andranik Station of the Yerevan Metro was opened in 1989 as Hoktemberyan Station and was renamed for Andranik in 1992.^[3][165] In 1995, General Andranik’s Museum was founded in Komitas Park of Yerevan, but was soon closed because the building was privatized.^[166] It was reopened on 16 September 2006, by Ilyich Beglarian as the Museum of Armenian Fedayi Movement, named after Andranik.^[167]

According to Patrick Wilson, during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War Andranik “inspired a new generation of Armenians.”^[168] A volunteer regiment from Masis named “General Andranik” operated in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh during the conflict.^[169]

Many organizations and groups in the Armenian diaspora are named after Andranik.^{[170][171][172][173]} On 11 September 2012, during the Bulgaria vs. Armenia football match in Sofia’s Levski National Stadium, Armenian fans brought a giant poster with pictures of General Andranik and Armenian officer Gurgen Margaryan, who was murdered in 2004 by Azerbaijani lieutenant Ramil Safarov. The text on the poster read, “Andranik’s children are also heroes … The work will be done.”^[174] In the Armenian Youth Federation Eastern Region, the Granite City chapter is named “Antranig” in Andranik’s honor.

The 65 page manuscripts of General Andranik, the only known memoir written by him, were returned to Armenia in May 2014 and sent to the History Museum of Armenia through Culture Minister Hasmik Poghosyan, almost a century after Andranik had parted with them.^[175]

Andranik has been figured prominently in the Armenian literature, sometimes as a fictional character.^[133] The Western Armenian writer Siamanto wrote a poem entitled “Andranik”, which was published in Geneva in 1905.^[176] The first book about Andranik was published during his lifetime. In 1920, Vahan Totovents, under the pen name Arsen Marmarian, published the book Gen. Andranik and His Wars (Զոր. Անդրանիկ և իր պատերազմները) in Entente-occupied Constantinople.^[133] The famed Armenian-American writer William Saroyan wrote a short story titled Antranik of Armenia, which was included in his collection of short stories Inhale and Exhale (1936).^[177] Another US-based Armenian writer Hamastegh‘s novel The White Horseman (Սպիտակ Ձիավորը, 1952) was based on Andranik and other fedayi.^[178][179] Hovhannes Shiraz, one of the most prominent Armenian poets of the 20th century, wrote at least two poems about Andranik; one in 1963 and another in 1967. The latter one, titled Statue to Andranik (Արձան Անդրանիկին), was published in 1991 after Shiraz’s death.^[180] Sero Khanzadyan‘s novel Andranik was suppressed for years and was published in 1989 when the tight Soviet control over publications was relaxed.^[181][182] Between the 1960s and the 1980s, author Suren Sahakyan collected folk stories and completed a novel, “Story about Andranik” (Ասք Անդրանիկի մասին). It was first published in Yerevan in 2008.^[183]

Andranik’s name has been memorialized in numerous songs.^[42] In 1913, Leon Trotsky described Andranik as “a hero of song and legend.”^[27] Italian diplomat and historian Luigi Villari wrote in 1906 that he met a priest from Turkish Armenia in Erivan who “sang the war-song of Antranik, the leader of Armenian revolutionary bands in Turkey.”^[184] Andranik is one of the main figures featured in Armenian patriotic songs, performed by Nersik Ispiryan, Harout Pamboukjian and others. There are dozens of songs dedicated to him, including Like an Eagle by gusan Sheram, 1904^[185] and Andranik pasha by gusan Hayrik.^[186] Andranik also features in the popular song The Bravehearts of the Caucasus (Կովկասի քաջեր) and other pieces of Armenian patriotic folklore.^[187]

Several documentaries about Andranik have been produced; these include Andranik (1929) by Armena-Film in France, directed by Asho Shakhatuni, who also played the main role;^[188][189] General Andranik (1990) directed by Levon Mkrtchyan, narrated by Khoren Abrahamyan; and Andranik Ozanian, a 53-minute-long documentary by the Public Television of Armenia.^[190]

Through his military career, Andranik was awarded with a number of medals and orders by governments of four countries.^[191] Andranik’s medals and sword were moved to Armenia and given to the History Museum of Armenia in 2006.^[192][193]

Country		Award	Rank	Year
Kingdom of Bulgaria		Order of Bravery	IV grade, “For Bravery”	1913[194][61]
Russian Empire		Order of St. Stanislaus	II class with Swords	1914–16[195]
		Order of St. Vladimir	IV class	1914–16[195][196]
		Cross of St. George	I, II, III class	1914–16[60][195]
		Order of St. George	II, III, IV classes	1914–16[197][195]
French Republic		Legion of Honor	Officier	1919[127]
Kingdom of Greece		War Cross	II class	1920[198][199]

• Մարտական հրահանգներ: Առաջարկներ, նկատողութիւններ եւ խորհուրդներ [Combat Commands: Suggestions, Remarks, Recommendations]. Geneva: ARF Press. 1906. OCLC 320038626.^[51]
• Հայկական առանձին հարուածող զօրամասը [The Armenian Special Striking Division]. Boston: Azg. 1921. OCLC 49525413.^[200]
• Զորավար Անդրանիկը կը խոսի [General Andranik Speaks]. Paris: Abaka weekly. 1921. OCLC 234085160.
• Առաքելոց վանքին կռիւը (Հայ յեղափոխութենէն դրուագ մը) [The Battle of Arakelots (An Episode of Armenian Revolution)]. Boston: Baikar. 1924. Memoirs of Andranik written down by Levon K. Lyulejian.^[201]

Notes

Citations