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This list compares various energies in joules (J), organized by order of magnitude.

Below 1 J

List of orders of magnitude for energy
Factor (joules) SI prefix Value Item
10−35 1×10−35 J Optical dipole potential measured in a tune-out experiment with ultracold metastable helium.[1]
10−34 6.626×10−34 J Energy of a photon with a frequency of 1 hertz.,[2][3] equivalent to 4.14×10−15 eV or, alternatively stated, One two-hundred-fifty-trillionth of one eV.)
8×10−34 J Average kinetic energy of translational motion of a molecule at the lowest temperature reached (38 picokelvin[4] as of 2021[5])
10−30 quecto- (qJ)
10−28 6.6×10−28 J Energy of a typical AM radio photon (1 MHz) (4×10−9 eV)[6]
10−27 ronto- (rJ)
10−24 yocto- (yJ) 1.6×10−24 J Energy of a typical microwave oven photon (2.45 GHz) (1×10−5 eV)[7][8]
10−23 2×10−23 J Average kinetic energy of translational motion of a molecule in the Boomerang Nebula, the coldest place known outside of a laboratory, at a temperature of 1 kelvin[9][10]
10−22 2×10−22 – 3×10−19 J Energy of infrared light photons[11]
10−21 zepto- (zJ) 1.7×10−21 J 1 kJ/mol, converted to energy per molecule[12]
2.1×10−21 J Thermal energy in each degree of freedom of a molecule at 25 °C (kT/2) (0.01 eV)[13]
2.856×10−21 J By Landauer’s principle, the minimum amount of energy required at 25 °C to change one bit of information
3–7×10−21 J Energy of a van der Waals interaction between atoms (0.02–0.04 eV)[14][15]
4.1×10−21 J The “kT” constant at 25 °C, a common rough approximation for the total thermal energy of each molecule in a system (0.03 eV)[16]
7–22×10−21 J Energy of a hydrogen bond (0.04 to 0.13 eV)[14][17]
10−20 4.5×10−20 J Upper bound of the mass–energy of a neutrino in particle physics (0.28 eV)[18][19]
10−19 1.602176634×10−19 J 1 electronvolt (eV) by definition. This value is exact as a result of the 2019 revision of SI units.[20]
3–5×10−19 J Energy range of photons in visible light (≈1.6–3.1 eV)[21][22]
3–14×10−19 J Energy of a covalent bond (2–9 eV)[14][23]
5×10−19 – 2×10−17 J Energy of ultraviolet light photons[11]
10−18 atto- (aJ) 1.78×10−18 J Bond dissociation energy for the carbon monoxide (CO) triple bond, alternatively stated: 1072 kJ/mol; 11.11 eV per molecule.[24]

This is the strongest chemical bond known.

2.18×10−18 J Ground state ionization energy of hydrogen (13.6 eV)
10−17 2×10−17 – 2×10−14 J Energy range of X-ray photons[11]
10−16
10−15 femto- (fJ) 3 × 10−15 J Average kinetic energy of one human red blood cell.[25][26][27]
10−14 1×10−14 J Sound energy (vibration) transmitted to the eardrums by listening to a whisper for one second.[28][29][30]
> 2×10−14 J Energy of gamma ray photons[11]
2.7×10−14 J Upper bound of the mass–energy of a muon neutrino[31][32]
8.2×10−14 J Rest mass–energy of an electron[33] (0.511 MeV)[34]
10−13 1.6×10−13 J 1 megaelectronvolt (MeV)[35]
2.3×10−13 J Energy released by a single event of two protons fusing into deuterium (1.44 MeV)[36]
10−12 pico- (pJ) 2.3×10−12 J Kinetic energy of neutrons produced by DT fusion, used to trigger fission (14.1 MeV)[37][38]
10−11 1.3646×10−11 J Energy consumed for one floating-point operation by KAIROS, the most energy-efficient supercomputer as of November 2025[39]
3.4×10−11 J Average total energy released in the nuclear fission of one uranium-235 atom (215 MeV)[40][41]
10−10 1.492×10−10 J Mass-energy equivalent of 1 Da[42] (931.5 MeV)[43]
1.503×10−10 J Rest mass–energy of a proton[44] (938.3 MeV)[45]
1.505×10−10 J Rest mass–energy of a neutron[46] (939.6 MeV)[47]
1.6×10−10 J 1 gigaelectronvolt (GeV)[48]
3×10−10 J Rest mass–energy of a deuteron[49]
6×10−10 J Rest mass–energy of an alpha particle[50]
7×10−10 J Energy required to raise a grain of sand by 0.1 mm (the thickness of a piece of paper).[51]
10−9 nano- (nJ) 1.6×10−9 J 10 GeV[52]
8×10−9 J Initial operating energy per beam of the CERN Large Electron Positron Collider in 1989 (50 GeV)[53][54]
10−8 1.3×10−8 J Mass–energy of a W boson (80.4 GeV)[55][56]
1.5×10−8 J Mass–energy of a Z boson (91.2 GeV)[57][58]
1.6×10−8 J 100 GeV[59]
2×10−8 J Mass–energy of the Higgs Boson (125.1 GeV)[60]
6.4×10−8 J Operating energy per proton of the CERN Super Proton Synchrotron accelerator in 1976[61][62]
10−7 1×10−7 J ≡ 1 erg[63]
1.6×10−7 J 1 TeV (teraelectronvolt),[64] about the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito[65]
10−6 micro- (μJ) 1.04×10−6 J Energy per proton in the CERN Large Hadron Collider in 2015 (6.5 TeV)[66][67]
10−5
10−4 1.0×10−4 J Energy released by a typical radioluminescent wristwatch in 1 hour[68][69] (1 μCi × 4.871 MeV × 1 hr)
10−3 milli- (mJ) 3.0×10−3 J Energy released by a P100 atomic battery in 1 hour[70] (2.4 V × 350 nA × 1 hr)
10−2 centi- (cJ) 4.0×10−2 J Use of a typical LED for 1 second[71] (2.0 V × 20 mA × 1 s)
10−1 deci- (dJ) 1.1×10−1 J Energy of an American half-dollar falling 1 metre[72][73]

1 to 105 J

List of orders of magnitude for energy
Factor (joules) SI prefix Value Item
100 J 1 J ≡ 1 N·m (newton–metre)
1 J ≡ 1 W·s (watt-second)
1 J Kinetic energy produced as an extra small apple (~100 grams[74]) falls 1 meter against Earth’s gravity[75]
1 J Energy required to heat 1 gram of dry, cool air by 1 degree Celsius[76]
1.4 J ≈ 1 ft·lbf (foot-pound force)[63]
4.184 J ≡ 1 thermochemical calorie (small calorie)[63]
4.1868 J ≡ 1 International (Steam) Table calorie[77]
8 J Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin theoretical upper limit for the energy of a cosmic ray coming from a distant source[78][79]
101 deca- (daJ) 10 J Flash energy of a typical pocket camera electronic flash capacitor (100–400 μF at 330 V)[80][81]
50 J The most energetic cosmic ray ever detected.[82]
102 hecto- (hJ) 1.25×102 J Kinetic energy of a regulation (standard) baseball (5.1 oz / 140 g)[83] thrown at average MLB pitch speed (93 mph / 150 km/h).[84]
1.5×102 – 3.6×102 J Energy delivered by a biphasic external electric shock (defibrillation), usually during adult cardiopulmonary resuscitation for cardiac arrest.
3×102 J Energy of a lethal dose of X-rays[85]
3×102 J Kinetic energy of an average person jumping as high as they can[86][87][88]
3.3×102 J Energy to melt 1 g of ice[89]
3.6×102 J Kinetic energy of 800-gram[90] standard men’s javelin thrown at 30 m/s[91] by elite javelin throwers[92]
5×102 – 2×103 J Energy output of a typical photography studio strobe light in a single flash[93]
6×102 J Use of a 10-watt flashlight for 1 minute
7.5×102 J A power of 1 horsepower applied for 1 second[63]
7.8×102 J Kinetic energy of 7.26 kg[94] standard men’s shot thrown at 14.7 m/s[citation needed] by the world record holder Randy Barnes[95]
8.01×102 J Amount of work needed to lift a man with an average weight (81.7 kg) one meter above Earth (or any planet with Earth gravity)
103 kilo- (kJ) 1.1×103 J ≈ 1 British thermal unit (BTU), depending on the temperature[63]
1.4×103 J Total solar radiation received from the Sun by 1 square meter at the altitude of Earth’s orbit per second (solar constant)[96]
2.3×103 J Energy to vaporize 1 g of water into steam[97]
3×103 J Lorentz force can crusher pinch[98]
3.4×103 J Kinetic energy of world-record men’s hammer throw (7.26 kg[99] thrown at 30.7 m/s[100] in 1986)[101]
3.6×103 J ≡ 1 W·h (watt-hour)[63]
4.2×103 J Energy released by explosion of 1 gram of TNT[63][102]
4.2×103 J ≈ 1 food Calorie (large calorie)
~7×103 J Muzzle energy of an elephant gun, e.g. firing a .458 Winchester Magnum[103]
8.5×103 J Kinetic energy of a regulation baseball thrown at the speed of sound (343 m/s = 767 mph = 1,235 km/h. Air, 20 °C).[104]
9×103 J Energy in an alkaline AA battery[105]
104 1.7×104 J Energy released by the metabolism of 1 gram of carbohydrates[106] or protein[107]
3.8×104 J Energy released by the metabolism of 1 gram of fat[108]
4–5×104 J Energy released by the combustion of 1 gram of gasoline[109]
5×104 J Kinetic energy of 1 gram of matter moving at 10 km/s[110]
105 3×105 – 1.5×106 J Kinetic energy of an automobile at highway speeds (1 to 5 tons[111] at 89 km/h or 55 mph)[112]

106 to 1011 J

List of orders of magnitude for energy
Factor (joules) SI prefix Value Item
106 mega- (MJ) 1×106 J Kinetic energy of a 2-tonne[111] vehicle at 32 metres per second (115 km/h or 72 mph)[113]
1.2×106 J Approximate food energy of a snack such as a Snickers bar (280 food calories)[114]
3.6×106 J = 1 kWh (kilowatt-hour) (used for electricity)[63]
4.2×106 J Energy released by explosion of 1 kilogram of TNT[63][102]
6.1×106 J Kinetic energy of the 4 kg tungsten APFSDS penetrator after being fired from a 120 mm KE-W A1 cartridge with a nominal muzzle velocity of 1740 m/s.[115][116]
8.4×106 J Recommended food energy intake per day for a moderately active woman (2000 food calories)[117][118]
9.1×106 J Kinetic energy of a regulation baseball thrown at Earth’s escape velocity (First cosmic velocity ≈ 11.186 km/s = 25,020 mph = 40,270 km/h).[119]
107 1×107 J Kinetic energy of the armor-piercing round fired by the ISU-152 assault gun[120][citation needed]
1.1×107 J Recommended food energy intake per day for a moderately active man (2600 food calories)[117][121]
3.3×107 J Kinetic energy of a 10 kg (23 lb) projectile fired by the Navy’s Mach 8 railgun.[122]
3.7×107 J $1 of electricity at a cost of $0.10/kWh (the US average retail cost in 2009)[123][124][125]
4×107 J Energy from the combustion of 1 cubic meter of natural gas[126]
4.2×107 J Caloric energy consumed by Olympian Michael Phelps on a daily basis during Olympic training[127]
6.3×107 J Theoretical minimum energy required to accelerate 1 kg of matter to escape velocity from Earth’s surface (ignoring atmosphere)[128]
9×107 J Total mass-energy of 1 microgram of matter (25 kWh)
108 1×108 J Kinetic energy of a 55-tonne aircraft at typical landing speed (59 m/s or 115 knots)[citation needed]
1.1×108 J ≈ 1 therm, depending on the temperature[63]
1.1×108 J ≈ 1 Tour de France, or ~90 hours[129] ridden at 5 W/kg[130] by a 65 kg rider[131]
7.3×108 J ≈ Energy from burning 16 kilograms of oil (using 135 kg per barrel of light crude)[citation needed]
109 giga- (GJ) 1×109 J Energy in an average lightning bolt[132] (thunder)
1.1×109 J Magnetic stored energy in the world’s largest toroidal superconducting magnet for the ATLAS experiment at CERN, Geneva[133]
1.2×109 J Inflight 100-ton Boeing 757-200 at 300 knots (154 m/s)
1.4×109 J Theoretical minimum amount of energy required to melt a tonne of steel (380 kWh)[134][135]
1.77×109 J Theoretical minimum energy required for a 1 kg object on Jupiter to accelerate to Jupiter‘s escape velocity and thus leave its gravity well.[136][137]
2×109 J Combustion energy of 61 litres (16 US gal) of gasoline in a standard fuel tank of a car.[109][138][139]
2×109 J Derived unit of energy in Planck units,[140] roughly the diesel tank energy of a mid-sized truck. Its mass-equivalent is the Planck mass.
2.49×109 J Approximate kinetic energy carried by American Airlines Flight 11 at the moment of impact with WTC 1 on September 11, 2001.[141][142]
3×109 J Inflight 125-ton Boeing 767-200 flying at 373 knots (192 m/s)
3.3×109 J Approximate average amount of energy expended by a human heart muscle over an 80-year lifetime[143][144]
3.6×109 J = 1 MW·h (megawatt-hour)
4.2×109 J Energy released by explosion of 1 ton of TNT.
4.5×109 J Average annual energy usage of a standard refrigerator[145][146]
6.1×109 J ≈ 1 bboe (barrel of oil equivalent)[147]
1010 1.9×1010 J Kinetic energy of an Airbus A380 at cruising speed (560 tonnes at 511 knots or 263 m/s)
4.2×1010 J ≈ 1 toe (ton of oil equivalent)[147]
4.6×1010 J Yield energy of a Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb (MOAB), the second most powerful non-nuclear weapon ever designed (11 tons of TNT)[148][149][150][151]
7.3×1010 J Energy consumed by the average US automobile in the year 2000[152][153][154]
8.6×1010 J ≈ 1 MW·d (megawatt-day), used in the context of power plants (24 MW·h)[155]
8.8×1010 J Total energy released in the nuclear fission of one gram of uranium-235[40][41][156]
9×1010 J Total mass-energy of 1 milligram of matter (25 MW·h)
1011 1.1×1011 J Kinetic energy of a regulation baseball thrown at lightning speed (120 km/s = 270,000 mph = 435,000 km/h).[157]
1.84×1011 J Yield energy of the Father of All Bombs (FOAB), the most energetic conventional weapon (44 tons of TNT).[148][149]
2.4×1011 J Approximate food energy consumed by an average human in an 80-year lifetime.[158]

1012 to 1017 J

List of orders of magnitude for energy
Factor (joules) SI prefix Value Item
1012 tera- (TJ) 1.85×1012 J Gravitational potential energy of the Twin Towers, combined, accumulated throughout their construction and released during the collapse of the complex.[159][160][161]
3.4×1012 J Maximum fuel energy of an Airbus A330-300 (97,530 liters[162] of Jet A-1[163])[164]
3.6×1012 J 1 GW·h (gigawatt-hour)[165]
4×1012 J Electricity generated by one 20-kg CANDU fuel bundle assuming ~29%[166] thermal efficiency of reactor[167][168]
4.2×1012 J Chemical energy released by the detonation of 1 kiloton of TNT[63][169]
6.4×1012 J Energy contained in jet fuel in a Boeing 747-100B aircraft at max fuel capacity (183,380 liters[170] of Jet A-1[163])[171]
~5.44×1011-8.4×1012 J Range of the energy of the Beirut explosion in 2020 (0.13-2 kt)[172][173]
1013 1.1×1013 J Energy of the maximum fuel an Airbus A380 can carry (320,000 liters[174] of Jet A-1[163])[175]
1.2×1013 J Orbital kinetic energy of the International Space Station (417 tonnes[176] at 7.7 km/s[177])[178]
1.20×1013 J Orbital kinetic energy of the Parker Solar Probe as it dives deep into the Sun’s gravity well in December 2024, reaching a peak velocity of 430,000 mph.[179][180][181]
~1.21×1013 J Energy released by the Halifax explosion (2.9 kt) in 1917[182]
~4-4.7×1013 J Estimated energy, respectively, of the main fragment and of the entire Kaali impact event (9.6-11.2 kilotons of TNT).[183][184]
6.3×1013 J Yield of the Little Boy atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima in World War II (15 kilotons)[185][186]
8.7×1013 J Modern yield estimates of the Trinity Test, the first U.S. and the first atomic test in history (21 kt)[187][188]
9×1013 J Theoretical total mass–energy of 1 gram of matter (25 GW·h) [189]
9.2×1013 J Yield of RDS-1, the first soviet atomic test (22 kt)[190][191]
1014 1.8×1014 J Energy released by annihilation of 1 gram of antimatter and matter (50 GW·h)
2.09×1014 J Upper limit (50 kt) of the energy range of small tactical nuclear weapons (0.1-50 kt)[192][193]
6×1014 J Energy released by an average hurricane per day[194]
1015 peta- (PJ) > 1015 J Energy released by a severe thunderstorm[195]
1×1015 J Yearly electricity consumption in Greenland as of 2008[196][197]
~1.7-2.1×1015 J The best range of the energy (~400-500 kilotons of TNT, ~30 times more energetic of Little Boy) released by the airburst of the Chelyabinsk meteor in 2013[198][199][200][201]
3.5×1015 J Estimated energy of the tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004[202]
4.2×1015 J Energy released by explosion of 1 megaton of TNT[63][203]
6.7×1015 J Yield of RDS-37 (1.6 megaton), the first Soviet two-stage hydrogen bomb test[204]
9.6×1015 J Estimated energy of the tsunami triggered by Krakatoa in 1883[202]
1016 ~4.2×1015-8.4×1016 J Range of the estimated energy for the impact that formed Meteor or Barringer Crater, one of the best-preserved impact craters on Earth and the first identified impact crater in the geological history (for simplicity ~1-20 megatons of TNT, ≈ 70–1300 times more energetic of the Little Boy dropped on Hiroshima;[205] its seismic waves at Mw 5.2-5.4 (Mw 3.3-3.5 at 160 km) would have triggered a landslide at Nankoweap which would have blocked the Colorado river creating the Nankoweap Paleolake.[206]
1.1×1016 J Yearly electricity consumption in Mongolia as of 2010[196][207]
~2.9×1016 J The estimated energy of the lateral blast (7 megatons) from the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens[208]
4.36×1016 J Yield of Ivy Mike, the first U.S. thermonuclear test (10.4 megatons)[209][210]
6.3×1016 J Yield of Castle Bravo, the most powerful nuclear weapon tested by the United States (15 megatons of TNT)[211]
7.9×1016 J Kinetic energy of a regulation baseball thrown at 99% the speed of light (KE = mc^2 × [γ-1], where the Lorentz factor γ ≈ 7.09).[212]
9×1016 J Mass–energy of 1 kilogram of matter[213]
1017 ~4.1-8.3×1016-(1.26×1017 J) The most likely range of the energy in the Tunguska event in 1908, the most remarkable astronomical airburst–impact event in the modern times (~10-30 megatons of TNT, ≈700-2,000 times more energetic of Little Boy dropped on Hiroshima[214][215]
1×1017 J Estimated energy of the Yilan impact in China (24 megatons of TNT)[216][217]
1-1.09×1017 J Total energy released by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens as blast and heat (24-26 megatons)[208][218][219]
1.4×1017 J Seismic energy released by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake[220]
1.7×1017 J Total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each second[221]
2.1×1017 J Yield of the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful nuclear weapon ever tested (50 megatons of TNT)[222][223]
2.552×1017 J Estimated energy of the explosion on 15 January 2022 in the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption[224][225]
4.2×1017 J Yearly electricity consumption of Norway as of 2008[196][226]
4.516×1017 J Energy needed to accelerate one ton of mass to 0.1 c (~30,000 km/s)[227]
4.184-8.368×1017 J Another estimated energy of the explosion on 15 January 2022 in the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption through infrasound and acoustic-gravity waves (100-200 megatons of TNT)[228]
8.4×1017 J Estimated energy released by the eruption of the Indonesian volcano, Krakatoa, in 1883 (200 megatons of TNT)[229][230][231][232]

1018 to 1023 J

List of orders of magnitude for energy
Factor (joules) SI prefix Value Item
1018 exa- (EJ) 2×1018 J Another estimated energy of the earthquake that shocked the Indian Ocean in 2004[202]
2.1×1018 J Estimated energy of the megatsunami triggered by the Mjølnir impact event[202]
5.86×1018 J Estimated energy of the Hapcheon impact (1400 megatons),[233] the first impact confirmed impact crater in Korean Peninsula;[234] stromatolites in a hydrothermal environment within such a recent crater could have significant implications for understanding how life might have arisen[235][236]
5.02-6.80×1018 J Estimated energy of a hypothetical Apophis impact (1200-1625 megatons)[237][238]
9.4×1018 J Worldwide nuclear-powered electricity output in 2023.[239][240]
1019 1×1019 J Thermal energy released by the 1991 Pinatubo eruption[241]
1.1×1019 J Seismic energy released by the 1960 Valdivia Earthquake[241]
1.2×1019 J Explosive yield of global nuclear arsenal[242] (2.86 gigatons of TNT)
1.4×1019 J Yearly electricity consumption in the US as of 2009[196][243]
1.4×1019J Yearly electricity production in the US as of 2009[244][245]
~2×1019 J Estimated energy of Nadir impact (5 gigatons of TNT), proposed as part of a binary asteroid or impact cluster together with the same Chicxulub[246]
5×1019 J Energy released in 1 day by an average hurricane in producing rain (400 times greater than the wind energy)[194]
6.4×1019 J Yearly electricity consumption of the world as of 2008[247][248]
6.8×1019 J Yearly electricity generation of the world as of 2008[247][249]
1020 1.4×1020 J Total energy released in the 1815 Mount Tambora eruption[250] (30 gigatons of TNT)
2.33×1020 J Kinetic energy of a carbonaceous chondrite meteor 1 km in diameter striking Earth’s surface at 20 km/s.[251] Such an impact occurs every ~500,000 years.[252]
2.4×1020 J Total latent heat energy released by Hurricane Katrina[253]
3.35×1020 J Energy released by the Eltanin impact in water (80 gigatons of TNT) assuming 1 km diameter projectile at 20 km/s)[254] which is the only known deep-ocean impact into water, resulting in a megatsunami with height up to 200-300 m[255][256][257]
5×1020 J Total world annual energy consumption in 2010[258][259]
6.2×1020 J World primary energy generation in 2023 (620 EJ).[260][261]
8×1020 J Estimated global uranium resources for generating electricity 2005[262][263][264][265]
1021 zetta- (ZJ) ~1.26-1.67×1021 J Range of energy of Bosumtwi impact (300,000-400,000 megatons of TNT) assuming an apparent outermost ring of ~27 km.[266]
~1.6 × 1021 J Estimated energy released by the Mjølnir impact event (3.8×105 megatons of TNT), the best impact crater to piece together the hydrodinamic sequence for the impacts which happens into shallow seas; evidence of a megatsunami in the Barents Sea is strongly linked to the impact.[267][202][268]
~1-2.1×1021 J Range of energy of the Zhamansinh impact (240,000-500,000 megatons of TNT) considering an apparent outermost ring of ~30 km, likely the best preserved complex impact crater known within the past one million years and maybe responsible of global-environmental adjustaments at the Mid-Pleistocene Transition[269][266]
~2.76-3.04×1021 J Range of energy of the Pantasma impact (660,000-727,000 megatons of TNT) assuming an apparent outermost ring of ~35 km[266]
~4×1021 J Estimated energy of Araguainha impact (~1 million or 1×106 megatons of TNT),[270] which could have contributed to the permian-triassic extinction releasing ~1,600 gigatons of methane due to direct effects of the impact[271][272]
~5×1021 J Estimated energy (~1.2×106 megatons of TNT) released by the Saqqar impact, the largest known in the arabian peninsula[273]
6.9×1021 J Estimated energy contained in the world’s natural gas reserves as of 2010[258][274]
7.0×1021 J Thermal energy released by the Toba eruption[241] (1.6 Teratons of TNT)
~7.3×1021 J Estimated energy of Chesapeake Bay impact event (1.75 million megatons of TNT)[275] with some possibility that it was part of a multiple impact event together with Popigai impact event and Toms Canyion[276][277][278][279] and some biospheric consequences; [280][281][272] the first evidence of distal deposits linked to the impact are found at a distance of 380 km in the site of Paint Hill (Moore County, North Carolina), with sedimentary beds (Mount Helicon Formation, MHF), containing ejecta, lapilli, tsunami layers and even black-carbon glass produced by the thermal wave that incinerated biomasses[282]
7.9×1021 J Estimated energy contained in the world’s petroleum reserves as of 2010[258][283]
9.3×1021 J Annual net uptake of thermal energy by the global ocean during 2003-2018[284]
1022 1.2×1022J Seismic energy of a magnitude 11 earthquake on Earth (M 11)[285]
1.3×1022 J Another estimated energy (3.1×106 megatons of TNT) of the Mjølnir impact event[202]
1.5×1022J Total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each day[221][286]
1.94×1022J Impact event that formed the Siljan Ring (~4.6 millions of megatons of TNT), the largest impact structure in Europe[287]
2-3×1022 J Estimated energy of Manicougan impact event (4.8–7.2 × 106 megatons of TNT),[288] possibly linked to biospheric consequences[289][290][291][280][281][272] and proposed as part of a multiple-impact event,[292] a hypotesis less likely according to recent works[293][294]
~2.18×1022 J Estimated energy of Acraman impact event (~5.2 × 106 megatons of TNT) with possible biospheric consequences;[295][272] the first direct dating at 585±15 Ma correlate it to the medium Edicarian, in the middle edicarian glaciation[296]
2.4×1022 J Estimated energy contained in the world’s coal reserves as of 2010[258][297]
2.9×1022 J Identified global uranium-238 resources using fast reactor technology[262]
3.9×1022 J Estimated energy contained in the world’s fossil fuel reserves as of 2010[258][298]
4.0×1022 J Mass-energy equivalent of the International Space Station (ISS), weighing around 450 tons.[299][300]
>4.184×1022 J Estimated energy (>106 megatons of TNT) of large-scale impact events to trigger regional-global damages (blast and earthquake on regional scale, tsunami cresting to 100 m and flooding 20 km inland, and wildfires that would be set globally)[301][281][272]
8.03×1022 J Total energy of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake[302]
1023 >1023 J The magnitude of energy of Popigai impact event (~23 × 106 megatons of TNT),[303][304] with some possibility that it was part of a multiple impact event together with Chesapeake Bay impact event and Toms Canyion[276][277][278][279] and some biospheric consequences[281][280][272]
~1.2×1023 J (0.4×1023-3×1023 J) Energetic range of the impact of Shoemaker-Levy 9 (~1.2 × 1023 J ≈ 2.9×107 megatons of TNT), the first multiple-impact ever seen by mankind with direct-scientific observation, despite having happened on Jupiter, and the first collision observed in the Solar System too[305]
1.5×1023 J Total energy of the 1960 Valdivia earthquake[306]
2.2×1023 J Total global uranium-238 resources using fast reactor technology[262]
~1-7.7×1023 J Proposed energy range for the formation of the Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatán Peninsula by the Chicxulub impactor, (from ~23 to hundreds of teratons of TNT) cited by literature when typically referred to in the order of 1023 joules;[307][308][309][310][311] Chicxulub is extremely important to be the only impact event linked to a mass extinction, the K-Pg extinction, with a near absolute certainty;[312][313][314][315][307][272] the impact might have triggered the eruption of the Way Subgroup of the Deccan Traps eruption[316][317] due to the enormous magnitude (Mw ~9-11) of seismic waves.[318][319] Chicxulub is also proposed as part of a binary asteroid or impact cluster after the discovery of Nadir crater;[246] similarly, Chicxulub was proposed in the past as part of a multiple-impact scenario with Shiva crater as catalyst of the K-Pg extinction,[320][321][322][323][324] but the nature of impact crater of the latter is currently controversial and elusive by literature.[325][326][327] Spherule layer dimensions range from 2–4 mm to ~2 m, while spherule diameters vary from 0.1 to 11 mm.[328] Even in Europe, spherules layer thick is 3 mm and their dimension is 0.25 mm.[329] Chicxulub is also a test bench for models that try to explain some dynamics of the large-scale impacts, for example those of the plume in creating the global layer of spherules and sediments, from the first works[330] to the more recent ones highlighting the role of the ejecta curtain[331] and of a conseguent pyrocloud.[328][332][333] Eventually, the impact singatures are found in East Asia for the presence of great concentrations of osmio and by U-Pb dating[334] and it seems that the impactor should be identified with a carbonaceous-type asteroid.[333][335]
8.6×1023 J Estimated energy of Sudbury impact (≈2.1 × 108 megatons of TNT)[336]

Over 1024 J

List of orders of magnitude for energy
Factor (joules) SI prefix Value Item
1024 yotta- (YJ) ~1.6×1024 J Estimated energy of Morokweng impact (~4 × 107 megatons of TNT) assuming ~130 km in diameter, possibly linked to the Thitonian or minor extinctions[280][281][337][272]
~7.3×1023-1.60×1024 J Estimated energy of the Vredefort impact[338][339][340] based on factors of ~1.7 and 3.7 relative to previous estimates[341][342]
2.31×1024 J Another estimated energy of Sudbury impact event (550 teratons of TNT)[343]
2.69×1024 J Rotational energy of Venus, which has a sidereal period of (-)243 Earth days.[344][345][346] The anomalously low value derives its origin from the deceleration of its rotation by atmospheric tides induced by the Sun.[347]
0.7-3.4×1024 J Another range of energy of the Chicxulub impact event if 1024 Joules are assumed[348]
~2-4×1024 J Range of energy of Vredefort impact[338][339][340]
3.8×1024 J Radiative heat energy released from the Earth‘s surface each year[241]
4×1024 J Estimated energy of Paraburdoo impact (late Archean) with distal spherule layer of 2 cm, 5-10 times more energetic of Chicxulub impact if an energy for it of 6×1023 J is assumed[329][349][350][351][352]
~4.184×1024 J Estimated energy (~109 megatons of TNT) of a large-scale impact events to trigger a global acidification of the ocean surface waters by sulfur from the interiors of comets and asteroids[301]
≤5 × 1024 J Estimated energy of the Chicxulub impact if an asteroid of 12 km in diameter, taking into account the crater size, the meteoritic content of the K-Pg boundary clay, and different impact models, is assumed[353]
5.5×1024 J Total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each year[221][354]
1-9×1024 J The order of magnitude of the estimated energy of Sudbury, Vredefort and late Archean impacts, and of the formation of Iridum basin[329][355]
1025 3×1025 J Estimated energy of Barberton S3 impact with distal layer thick of ~25 cm; ~50 times more energetic of Chicxulub impact if an energy for it of 6×1023 J is assumed[329][349][350][351][352]
4×1025 J Total energy of the Carrington Event in 1859[356]
5.8×1025 J Upper limit of the energy of the Chicxulub impact, assuming dozens of kilometers in diameter for the impactor according to different models, and magnitude of the other giant astronomic impacts on Earth[357]
2-9×1025 J Range of estimated energy of the impact that formed Mare Orientale on the Moon[358]
1026 >1026 J Estimated energy of early Archean asteroid impacts and Imbrium basin formation; in general, the minimum energetic order of magnitude for the largest impact basins of the Moon (traditionally associated to the Late Heavy Bombardment), Mars and of the Solar System too[359][329][349][350][351][352]
>1026 J Lower limit of the energy of short bursts released by magnetars, calculated according to peak luminosity[360][361]
~3×1026 J Estimated energy of Barberton S5 impact with 10-100 cm of distal layer thick, comparable to the great lunar basin impacts; ~500 times more energetic of Chicxulub impact if an energy for it of 6×1023 J is assumed[329][349][350][351][352]
3.2×1026 J Bolometric energy of Proxima Centauri‘s superflare in March 2016 (10^33.5 erg). In one year, potentially five similar superflares erupts from the surface of the red dwarf.[362]
3.828×1026 J Total radiative energy output of the Sun per second,[363] as defined by the IAU.[364]
≥4×1026 J Estimated energy for the formation of South-Pole Aitken basin[365][329]
5.33×1026 J Estimated energy of the Hellas Planitia impact[366]
1027 ronna- (RJ) 1×1027 J Estimated energy released by the impact that created the Caloris basin on Mercury.[367] (238 petatons of TNT)
1×1027 J Upper limit of the most energetic solar flares possible (x 1000)[368]
4×1027 J Estimated energy of the astronomic impact that formed the Utopia Basin, the largest impact crater in the Solar System[369]
4.2×1027 J Kinetic energy of a regulation baseball thrown at the speed of the Oh-My-God particle, itself a cosmic ray proton with the kinetic energy of a baseball thrown at 60 mph (~50 J).[370] (1 exaton of TNT)
5.19×1027 J Thermal input necessary to evaporate all surface water on Earth.[371][372][373] Note that the evaporated water still remains on Earth in vapor form.
1028 >1028 J The probable order of magnitude of the energy impact that formed the Utopia Basin[369]
3.845×1028 J Kinetic energy of the Moon in its orbit around the Earth (counting only its velocity relative to the Earth)[374][375]
7×1028 J Total energy of the stellar superflare from V1355 Orionis[376][377]
1029 2.1×1029 J Rotational energy of the Earth[378][379][380]
3-6×1029 J Range of estimated energy in the formation of Borealis Basin on Mars if an impact origin, that could have formed Phobos and Deimos due to the ejected material in the orbit, is assumed[381][382]
1030 quetta-(QJ) ~1030 J Lower limit of the energy range of fast radio bursts (FRBs)[383][384]
1.79×1030 J Rough estimated of the gravitational binding energy of Mercury.[385]
1.79-5.37×1030 J Range of gravitational accretion energy released by the Late Veneer by the accretion of 0.5-1.5% of the mass of Earth[386][387][388]
1031 2×1031 J The Theia Impact, the most energetic event ever in Earth’s history[389][390]
3.3×1031J Total energy output of the Sun each day[363][391]
1032 ~1×1032 J Estimated energy of a micronova, a new type of stellar explosion discovered in 2022[392][393]
1.71×1032 J Gravitational binding energy of the Earth[394]
3.10×1032 J Yearly energy output of Sirius B, the ultra-dense and Earth-sized white dwarf companion of Sirius, the Dog Star. It has a surface temperature of about 25,200 K.[395]
1033 2.7×1033 J Earth’s kinetic energy at perihelion in its orbit around the Sun[396][397]
1034 ~1034 J Average energy in gamma-rays of novae detected by Fermi-LAT[398]
1.2×1034 J Total energy output of the Sun each year[363][399]
4.13×1034 J Rotational energy of Jupiter, calculated using an updated value for the moment of inertia factor of 0.26393 ± 0.00001.[400][401][402]
1035 >1035 J Upper limit of the energy range of fast radio bursts (FRBs)[383][384]
>1035 J Estimated energy of a mergerburst between a planet and a brown dwarf with an accretion disk as very low energetic type of ILOTs[403][404][405]
>1035 J Lower limit of the energy of outbursts (that are more energetic of short bursts) released by magnetars, calculated according to peak luminosity[360][361]
3.5×1035 J The most energetic stellar superflare to date (V2487 Ophiuchi)[406]
1036 >1036 J Estimated energy of ASASSN-15qi, proposed as a tidal disruption event of a sub-jupiter young planet by a main-sequence (MS) star as part of ILOTs[405]
>1036 J Upper limit of the energy of short bursts released by magnetars, calculated according to peak luminosity[360][361]
>1036 J Upper limit of the energy of outbursts (that are more energetic of short bursts) released by magnetars, calculated according to peak luminosity[360][361]
1.7×1036 J Estimated energy of V4332 Sgr, a low-energetic luminous red nova (LRNe)[407]
4.4×1036 J Total energy of proton acceleration of RS Oph nova[398]
1037 1037 J The magnitude energy of a classic nova explosion[408][409][398]
>1037 J Lower limit of energy of giant flares (GF) by magnetars,[360] other probable sources of R-process together with supernovae, kilonovae and in general nuclear fusion of the stars for nucleosynthesis[410][411]
2×1037 J Total energy (Ek) of RS Oph nova[398]
1038 ~1038 J Lower limit of magnitude energy of Intermediate Luminosity Optical Transient (ILOTs)[403][404][405]
2.2×1038 J Estimated energy of proton acceleration using RS Oph as prototype (4.4×1036 J) in the Milky Way in a year[398]
7.53×1038 J Baryonic (ordinary) mass-energy contained in a volume of one cubic light-year, on average.[412][413]
1039  2–5×1039 J Range of energy of the giant flare (GF) triggered by starquake on SGR 1806-20[414][415][416][360]
~3-5×1039 J Range of estimated isotropic-energy (Eiso) of extremely low-energetic and low-luminous GRB 170817A, detected in a neutron-star mergers (GW170817), confirming that short-GRB are triggered by kilonovae[417][418][419]
6.60×1039 J  Theoretical total mass–energy of the Moon[420][421]
1040  ≥1040 J Estimated lower limit of energy of Low‑Energy Supernovae (VLE SNe)[422][423]
>1040 J Very-low energy of supernovae and “failed-supernovae“; the required minimum energy for a supernova to occur.[424]
1.61×1040 J Baryonic mass-energy contained in a volume of one cubic parsec, on average.[413][425]
0.3-3×1040 J Range of estimated energy of five intermediate-luminosity red transients (ILRTs), namely AT 2010dn, AT 2012jc, AT 2013la, AT 2013lb, and AT 2018aes[426]
~7×1040 J Energy in gamma-rays of GRB 980425, the first associated to a hypernova (SN1998bw)[427] according to collapsar model[428][429][430]
1041 >1041 J Lower limit of true-beamed corrected energy in gamma-rays (Eγ) of short gamma-ray bursts (SGRBs) with a narrow distribution of ~1 order of magnitude[431][432]
>1041 J Lower limit of magnitude energy of low-luminous gamma-ray bursts (LLGRBs)[433]
~2×1041 J Estimated energy of SN 2008ha, an extremely faint supernova[434][435]
2.28×1041 J Gravitational binding energy of the Sun[436]
4×1041 J Estimated energy of AT2017jfs, a very energetic luminous red nova (LRNe)[407]
5.37×1041 J Mass–energy equivalent of the Earth[437][438]
1042 >1042 J Energy of giant flares of Luminous Blue Variables (LBV) and Very Massive Stars (VMS), and Intermediate Luminosity Red Transients too as very energetic events of ILOTs[404][403][405]
>1042 J Upper limit of true-beamed corrected energy in gamma-rays (Eγ) of short gamma-ray bursts (SGRBs) with a narrow distribution of ~1 order of magnitude[431][432]
>1042 J Lower limit of magnitude energy of short gamma-ray bursts (SGRBs) as isotropic energy (Eiso)[439][440][441]
<3×1042 J Estimated energy in gamma-rays of GRB 091127, a sub-energetic gamma-ray burst[442]
~7.4-9.7×1042 J Low estimated energy of sub-luminous LL-Type IIP supernovae (0.07 foe or bethe, with 1 foe=1044 J)[443] with SN 2020cxd as prototype[444]
1043 ≥1043 J Estimated upper limit of energy of Low‑Energy Supernovae (VLE SNe)[422][423]
>1043 J Upper limit of magnitude energy of Intermediate Luminosity Optical Transient (ILOTs)[403][404][405]
>1043 J Upper limit of magnitude energy of low-luminous gamma-ray bursts (LLGRBs)[433]
~1-4×1043 J Range of estimated energy of ultra‑stripped type-Ic supernovae (iPTF 14gqr-SN 2014ft)[445][446][447] and of electron‑capture supernovae (2018zd)[448]
~5×1043 J Estimated energy of SN 2005ek, a proposed ultra‑stripped supernova[446]
5×1043 J Average total-true energy of all gamma rays (Eγ) in a typical (standard-cosmological) gamma-ray burst if collimated[449][450][451]
5.8×1043 J Upper limit of estimated energy for SN 2020cxd (LL‑IIP supernova)[444]
>1043 J Total energy in a typical fast blue optical transient (FBOT)[452]
1044 ~1044 J Average value of a Tidal Disruption Event (TDE) in optical/UV bands[453]
~1044 J Estimated kinetic energy released by FBOT CSS161010[454]
~1×1044 J Average kinetic/thermal energy released in a typical Ia-type supernova,[455][456][457][458] core-collapse supernova[459][460][461][462] and kilonova (macronova) too,[463][464][465][466] sometimes referred to as a foe or bethe.[443]
>1044 J Upper limit of magnitude energy of short gamma-ray bursts (SGRBs) as isotropic energy (Eiso)[439][440][441]
1.23×1044 J Approximate lifetime energy output of the Sun.[467][468]
1.71×1044 J Mass-energy equivalent of Jupiter, the most massive planet in our Solar System[469]
3×1044 J Average total energy (Etotal-Eo),[470][471] both in gamma-rays (Eγ) and as kinetic energy (Ek) of a typical (standard-cosmological) gamma-ray burst if collimated[472][451]
~(0.9-3.8)×1044 J Range of approximate beaming-corrected[451] estimated energy in gamma-rays (Ey) of the ultraluminous GRB110918A with a jet opening angle of 1.7°–3.4°[473]
5.8 × 1044 J Kinetic energy of the star S2 as it made its closest approach to Sagittarius A*, the galactic center SMBH, at 7,650 km/s on May 2018.[474][475]
1045 ~1045 J Estimated energy released in typical hypernovae and pair-instability supernovae[476]
1045 J Energy released by the energetic supernova, SN 2016aps[477][478]
1.7-1.9×1045J Energy released by hypernova ASASSN-15lh[479]
2.3×1045 J Energy released by the energetic supernova PS1-10adi[480][481]
>1045 J Estimated energy of a magnetorotational hypernova[482]
>1045 J Total energy (Etotal-Eo) in gamma rays (Eγ)+relativistic kinetic energy (Erel ≈ Eγ + Eke)[449] of hyper-energetic (standard-cosmological) gamma-ray burst if collimated[483][470][471][484][485][451]
∼3 × 1045 J Rotational energy (Erot) of a maximally rotating magnetar, a discriminant to detect the nature of the inner engine of GRBs[486][470][471]
~2-5×1045 J Range of estimated energy of SN1998bw, the first associated hypernova to a gamma-ray burst (GRB 980425) with success according to collapsar model.[428][429][430]
1046 >1046 J Estimated energy in theoretical quark-novae[487]
~1046 J Upper limit of the total energy of a pair-instability supernova[488][489]
~1046 J Isotropic energy of short GRB 090510[490]
1.5×1046 J Total energy of the most energetic optical non-quasar transient, AT2021lwx[491]
~1.5×1046 J Gravitational binding energy of a neutron star, a discriminant to see if not-standard particles aren’t detected if the released energy in neutrinos is lower, or if a massive neutron star forms if it is higher (~6 × 1046 J) in a CCSN[492][493]
2.5×1046 J Estimated upper limit of Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs), an extreme version of TDEs discovered in 2025[494]
2-4×1046 J Range of energy of core-collapse supernovae in neutrinos (~99% of the total energy of the astrophysic transient and ~10% of the mass of its neutron star)[495][496][497]
~4-5×1046 J Estimated upper limit of kinetic energy of the most energetic GRB of all time, GRB 221009A, according to the traditional top-hat model for jets assuming collimation;[498][499][451] the previous records at 1045 J appear broken[483][470][471][484][485]
1047 1045-47 J Average estimated energy of stellar mass rotational black holes by vacuum polarization in an electromagnetic field[500][501][502][503][504]
1047 J Total energy of a very energetic and relativistic jetted Tidal Disruption Event (TDE)[505]
~1047 J Estimated energy of a very efficient rotating Kerr-Newman black hole with vacuum polarization, proposed to explain the Eiso of poorly collimated GRBs in which the jet break is absent[502][503][504][500][501]
~1.3×1047 J The isotropic-energy (Eiso) of GRB 080319B,[506][507] remarkable especially for having been a naked-eye burst for approximately 30 seconds from 7.5 billion (7.5×109) light-years[508][509][510] and for which a double-structured jet was proposed, featuring a brighter, narrower inner section and a larger outer one[511] with implications about the frequency and visibility from Earth of GRBs too.[512]
1.8×1047 J Theoretical total mass–energy of the Sun[513][514]
(2.1±0.1)×1047 J The isotropic-energy (Eiso) of the ultraluminous GRB 110918A[473]
5.4×1047 J Mass–energy emitted as gravitational waves during the merger of two black holes, originally about 30 Solar masses each, as observed by LIGO (GW150914); the event coincided with the first detection of gravitational waves[515]
5.81×1047 J Estimated energy of the mega-energetic GRB 090323[516]
8.6×1047 J Mass–energy emitted as gravitational waves during the most energetic black hole merger observed until 2020 (GW170729)[517]
8.8×1047 J GRB 080916C – formerly the most powerful gamma-ray burst (GRB) ever recorded – total/true isotropic energy (Eiso)[518][451] output estimated at 8.8 × 1047 joules (8.8 × 1054 erg), or 4.9 times the Sun’s mass turned to energy.[519] It is also proposed an energy of 4.82×1047 J (4.82×1054 erg)[516]
1048 1048 J Estimated energy of a supermassive Population III star supernova, denominated “General Relativistic Instability Supernova.”[520][521]
~1.2×1048 J Approximate energy released by GW190521, the first intermediate-mass black hole ever detected[522][523][524][525][526]
1.2–3×1048 J Range of the total/true[518][527][451] isotropic energy output (Eiso) of GRB 221009A – the most powerful gamma-ray burst (GRB) ever recorded (1.2–3 × 1055 erg)[516][528][529]
3×1048 J The most energetic black hole merger, denominated GW231123, detected in 2023[530]
1050 ≳1050 J Upper limit of isotropic energy (Eiso) of Population III stars Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs).[531]
1053 >1053 J Mechanical energy of very energetic so-called “quasar tsunamis”[532][533]
6×1053 J Total mechanical energy or enthalpy in the powerful AGN outburst in the RBS 797[534]
7.65×1053 J Mass-energy of Sagittarius A*, Milky Way’s central supermassive black hole[535][536]
1054 3×1054 J Total mechanical energy or enthalpy in the powerful AGN outburst in the Hercules A (3C 348)[537]
1055 >1055 J Total mechanical energy or enthalpy in the powerful AGN outburst in the MS 0735.6+7421,[538] Ophiuchus Supercluster eruption[539] and supermassive black holes mergings[540][541]
1057 ~1057 J Estimated rotational energy of M87 SMBH and total energy of the most luminous quasars over Gyr time-scales[542][543]
~2×1057 J Estimated thermal energy of the Bullet Cluster of galaxies[544]
7.3×1057 J Mass-energy equivalent of the ultramassive black hole TON 618, an extremely luminous quasar / active galactic nucleus (AGN).[545][546]
1058 ~1058 J Estimated total energy (in shockwaves, turbulence, gases heating up, gravitational force) of galaxy clusters mergings[547]
4×1058 J Visible mass–energy in our galaxy, the Milky Way[548][549]
1059 1×1059 J Total mass–energy of our galaxy, the Milky Way, including dark matter and dark energy[550][551]
1.4×1059 J Mass-energy of the Andromeda galaxy (M31), ~0.8 trillion solar masses.[552][553]
1062 1–2×1062 J Total mass–energy of the Virgo Supercluster including dark matter, the Supercluster which contains the Milky Way[554]
1066 1.207×1066 J Average mass-energy of ordinary matter contained within one cubic gigaparsec in the observable universe.[555]
1070 1.462×1070 J Rough estimated of total mass–energy of ordinary matter (atoms; baryons) present in the observable universe.[556][557][413]
1071 3.177×1071 J Rough estimated of total mass-energy within our observable universe, accounting for all forms of matter and energy.[558][413]

SI multiples

SI multiples of joule (J)
Submultiples Multiples
Value SI symbol Name Value SI symbol Name
10−1 J dJ decijoule 101 J daJ decajoule
10−2 J cJ centijoule 102 J hJ hectojoule
10−3 J mJ millijoule 103 J kJ kilojoule
10−6 J μJ microjoule 106 J MJ megajoule
10−9 J nJ nanojoule 109 J GJ gigajoule
10−12 J pJ picojoule 1012 J TJ terajoule
10−15 J fJ femtojoule 1015 J PJ petajoule
10−18 J aJ attojoule 1018 J EJ exajoule
10−21 J zJ zeptojoule 1021 J ZJ zettajoule
10−24 J yJ yoctojoule 1024 J YJ yottajoule
10−27 J rJ rontojoule 1027 J RJ ronnajoule
10−30 J qJ quectojoule 1030 J QJ quettajoule

The joule is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every SI unit named after a person, its symbol starts with an upper case letter (J), but when written in full, it follows the rules for capitalisation of a common noun; i.e., joule becomes capitalised at the beginning of a sentence and in titles but is otherwise in lower case.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Henson, B. M.; Ross, J. A.; Thomas, K. F.; Kuhn, C. N.; Shin, D. K.; Hodgman, S. S.; Zhang, Y.-H.; Tang, L.-Y.; Drake, G. W. F.; Bondy, A. T.; Truscott, A. G.; Baldwin, K. G. H. (2022). “Measurement of a helium tune-out frequency: an independent test of quantum electrodynamics”. Science. 375 (6586): 1343–1347. arXiv:2107.00149. Bibcode:2022Sci…376..199H. doi:10.1126/science.abk2502. PMID 35389780. See SM Sec. 2.2.1 for sensitivity.
  2. ^ “Planck’s constant | physics | Britannica.com”. britannica.com. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  3. ^ Energy of a photon: E= h × v.= 6.626e-34 × 1 = 6.626e-34 J.
  4. ^ Calculated: KEavg = (3/2) × Boltzmann constant × Temperature
  5. ^ Deppner, Christian; Herr, Waldemar; Cornelius, Merle; Stromberger, Peter; Sternke, Tammo; Grzeschik, Christoph; Grote, Alexander; Rudolph, Jan; Herrmann, Sven; Krutzik, Markus; Wenzlawski, André (30 August 2021). “Collective-Mode Enhanced Matter-Wave Optics”. Physical Review Letters. 127 (10) 100401. Bibcode:2021PhRvL.127j0401D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.100401. PMID 34533345. S2CID 237396804.
  6. ^ Calculated: Ephoton = hν = 6.626×10−34 J-s × 1×106 Hz = 6.6×10−28 J. In eV: 6.6×10−28 J / 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 4.1×10−9 eV.
  7. ^ Cheung, Howard (1998). Elert, Glenn (ed.). “Frequency of a microwave oven”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
  8. ^ Calculated: Ephoton = hν = 6.626×10−34 J-s × 2.45×108 Hz = 1.62×10−24 J. In eV: 1.62×10−24 J / 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 1.0×10−5 eV.
  9. ^ “Boomerang Nebula boasts the coolest spot in the Universe”. JPL. Archived from the original on 27 August 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
  10. ^ Calculated: KEavg ≈ (3/2) × T × 1.38×10−23 = (3/2) × 1 × 1.38×10−23 ≈ 2.07×10−23 J
  11. ^ a b c d “Wavelength, Frequency, and Energy”. Imagine the Universe. NASA. Archived from the original on 18 November 2001. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
  12. ^ Calculated: 1×103 J / 6.022×1023 entities per mole = 1.7×10−21 J per entity
  13. ^ Calculated: 1.381×10−23 J/K × 298.15 K / 2 = 2.1×10−21 J
  14. ^ a b c “Bond Lengths and Energies”. Chem 125 notes. UCLA. Archived from the original on 23 August 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
  15. ^ Calculated: 2 to 4 kJ/mol = 2×103 J / 6.022×1023 molecules/mol = 3.3×10−21 J. In eV: 3.3×10−21 J / 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 0.02 eV. 4×103 J / 6.022×1023 molecules/mol = 6.7×10−21 J. In eV: 6.7×10−21 J / 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 0.04 eV.
  16. ^ Ansari, Anjum. “Basic Physical Scales Relevant to Cells and Molecules”. Physics 450. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
  17. ^ Calculated: 4 to 13 kJ/mol. 4 kJ/mol = 4×103 J / 6.022×1023 molecules/mol = 6.7×10−21 J. In eV: 6.7×10−21 J / 1.6×10−19 eV/J = 0.042 eV. 13 kJ/mol = 13×103 J / 6.022×1023 molecules/mol = 2.2×10−20 J. In eV: 13×103 J / 6.022×1023 molecules/mol / 1.6×10−19 eV/J = 0.13 eV.
  18. ^ Thomas, S.; Abdalla, F.; Lahav, O. (2010). “Upper Bound of 0.28 eV on Neutrino Masses from the Largest Photometric Redshift Survey”. Physical Review Letters. 105 (3) 031301. arXiv:0911.5291. Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105c1301T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.031301. PMID 20867754. S2CID 23349570.
  19. ^ Calculated: 0.28 eV × 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 4.5×10−20 J
  20. ^ “physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/Table/allascii.txt”. 2022. Archived from the original on 10 September 2024.
  21. ^ “BASIC LAB KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS”. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2011. Visible wavelengths are roughly from 390 nm to 780 nm
  22. ^ Calculated: E = hc/λ. E780 nm = 6.6×10−34 kg-m2/s × 3×108 m/s / (780×10−9 m) = 2.5×10−19 J. E_390 _nm = 6.6×10−34 kg-m2/s × 3×108 m/s / (390×10−9 m) = 5.1×10−19 J
  23. ^ Calculated: 50 kcal/mol × 4.184 J/calorie / 6.0×1022e23 molecules/mol = 3.47×10−19 J. (3.47×10−19 J / 1.60×10−19 eV/J = 2.2 eV.) and 200 kcal/mol × 4.184 J/calorie / 6.0×1022e23 molecules/mol = 1.389×10−18 J. (7.64×10−19 J / 1.60×10−19 eV/J = 8.68 eV.)
  24. ^ Kim, Hahn; Doan, Van Dung; Cho, Woo Jong; Valero, Rosendo; Aliakbar Tehrani, Zahra; Madridejos, Jenica Marie L.; Kim, Kwang S. (6 November 2015). “Intriguing Electrostatic Potential of CO: Negative Bond-ends and Positive Bond-cylindrical-surface”. Scientific Reports. 5 16307. Bibcode:2015NatSR…516307K. doi:10.1038/srep16307. PMC 4635358. PMID 26542890.
  25. ^ Phillips, Kevin; Jacques, Steven; McCarty, Owen (2012). “How much does a cell weigh?”. Physical Review Letters. 109 (11) 118105. Bibcode:2012PhRvL.109k8105P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.118105. PMC 3621783. PMID 23005682. Roughly 27 picograms
  26. ^ Bob Berman. “Our Bodies’ Velocities, By the Numbers”. Retrieved 19 August 2016. The […] blood […] flow[s] at an average speed of 3 to 4 mph
  27. ^ Calculated: 1/2 × 27×10−12 g × (3.5 miles per hour)2 = 3×10−15 J
  28. ^ “Physics of the Body” (PDF). Notre Dame. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.. “The eardrum is a […] membran[e] with an area of 65 mm2.”
  29. ^ “Intensity and the Decibel Scale”. Physics Classroom. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
  30. ^ Calculated: two eardrums ≈ 1 cm2. 1×10−6 W/m2 × 1×10−4 m2 × 1 s = 1×10−14 J
  31. ^ Thomas J Bowles (2000). P. Langacker (ed.). Neutrinos in physics and astrophysics: from 10–33 to 1028 cm: TASI 98: Boulder, Colorado, USA, 1–26 June 1998. World Scientific. p. 354. ISBN 978-981-02-3887-2. Retrieved 11 November 2011. an upper limit ov m_v_u < 170 keV
  32. ^ Calculated: 170×103 eV × 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 2.7×10−14 J
  33. ^ “electron mass energy equivalent”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  34. ^ “CODATA Value: electron mass energy equivalent in MeV”. physics.nist.gov. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  35. ^ “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  36. ^ “How much energy is released when hydrogen is fused to produce one kilo of helium?”. 11 November 2017. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  37. ^ Muller, Richard A. (2002). “The Sun, Hydrogen Bombs, and the physics of fusion”. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2011. The neutron comes out with high energy of 14.1 MeV
  38. ^ “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  39. ^ “November 2025”. www.top500.org. Retrieved 25 November 2025.
  40. ^ a b “Energy From Uranium Fission”. HyperPhysics. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
  41. ^ a b “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  42. ^ “CODATA Value: atomic mass constant energy equivalent”. physics.nist.gov. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  43. ^ “CODATA Value: atomic mass constant energy equivalent in MeV”. physics.nist.gov. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  44. ^ “proton mass energy equivalent”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  45. ^ “CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV”. physics.nist.gov. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  46. ^ “neutron mass energy equivalent”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  47. ^ “CODATA Value: neutron mass energy equivalent in MeV”. physics.nist.gov. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  48. ^ “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  49. ^ “deuteron mass energy equivalent”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  50. ^ “alpha particle mass energy equivalent”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  51. ^ Calculated: 7×10−4 g × 9.8 m/s2 × 1×10−4 m
  52. ^ “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  53. ^ Myers, Stephen. “The LEP Collider”. CERN. Archived from the original on 25 August 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2011. the LEP machine energy is about 50 GeV per beam
  54. ^ Calculated: 50×109 eV × 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 8×10−9 J
  55. ^ “W”. PDG Live. Particle Data Group. Retrieved 4 November 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  56. ^ “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  57. ^ Amsler, C.; Doser, M.; Antonelli, M.; Asner, D.; Babu, K.; Baer, H.; Band, H.; Barnett, R.; Bergren, E.; Beringer, J.; Bernardi, G.; Bertl, W.; Bichsel, H.; Biebel, O.; Bloch, P.; Blucher, E.; Blusk, S.; Cahn, R. N.; Carena, M.; Caso, C.; Ceccucci, A.; Chakraborty, D.; Chen, M. -C.; Chivukula, R. S.; Cowan, G.; Dahl, O.; d’Ambrosio, G.; Damour, T.; De Gouvêa, A.; et al. (2008). “Review of Particle Physics⁎”. Physics Letters B. 667 (1): 1–6. Bibcode:2008PhLB..667….1A. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018. hdl:1854/LU-685594. S2CID 227119789.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  58. ^ “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  59. ^ “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  60. ^ ATLAS; CMS (26 March 2015). “Combined Measurement of the Higgs Boson Mass in pp Collisions at √s=7 and 8 TeV with the ATLAS and CMS Experiments”. Physical Review Letters. 114 (19) 191803. arXiv:1503.07589. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.114s1803A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.191803. PMID 26024162. S2CID 1353272.
  61. ^ Adams, John. “400 GeV Proton Synchrotron”. Excertp from the CERN Annual Report 1976. CERN. Archived from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2011. A circulating proton beam of 400 GeV energy was first achieved in the SPS on 17 June 1976
  62. ^ Calculated: 400×109 eV × 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 6.4×10−8 J
  63. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l “Appendix B8—Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically”. NIST Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). NIST. 2 July 2009. 1.355818
  64. ^ “Conversion from eV to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  65. ^ “Chocolate bar yardstick”. Archived from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2014. A TeV is actually a very tiny amount of energy. A popular analogy is to a flying mosquito.
  66. ^ “First successful beam at record energy of 6.5 TeV”. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
  67. ^ Calculated: 6.5×1012 eV per beam × 1.6×10−19 J/eV = 1.04×10−6 J
  68. ^ “The radioactive series of radium-226” (PDF). CERN.
  69. ^ Terrill, James G. Jr.; Ingraham, Samuel C. II; Moeller, Dade W. (1954). “Radium in the Healing Arts and in Industry: Radiation Exposure in the United States”. Public Health Reports. 69 (3): 255–262. doi:10.2307/4588736. JSTOR 4588736. PMC 2024184. PMID 13134440.
  70. ^ “NanoTritium™: Next-gen Tritium Battery with Decade-Long Betavoltaic Battery Power | CityLabs”. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  71. ^ “LED – Basic Red 5mm – COM-09590 – SparkFun Electronics”. www.sparkfun.com. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  72. ^ “Coin specifications”. United States Mint. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2011. 11.340 g
  73. ^ Calculated: m×g×h = 11.34×10−3 kg × 9.8 m/s2 × 1 m = 1.1×10−1 J
  74. ^ “Apples, raw, with skin (NDB No. 09003)”. USDA Nutrient Database. USDA. Archived from the original on 3 March 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
  75. ^ Calculated: m×g×h = 1×10−1 kg × 9.8 m/s2 × 1 m = 1 J
  76. ^ “Specific Heat of Dry Air”. Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
  77. ^ “Footnotes”. NIST Guide to the SI. NIST. 2 July 2009.
  78. ^ “Physical Motivations”. ULTRA Home Page (EUSO project). Dipartimento di Fisica di Torino. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  79. ^ Calculated: 5×1019 eV × 1.6×10−19 J/ev = 8 J
  80. ^ “Notes on the Troubleshooting and Repair of Electronic Flash Units and Strobe Lights and Design Guidelines, Useful Circuits, and Schematics”. Retrieved 8 December 2011. The energy storage capacitor for pocket cameras is typically 100 to 400 uF at 330 V (charged to 300 V) with a typical flash energy of 10 W-s.
  81. ^ “Teardown: Digital Camera Canon PowerShot |”. electroelvis.com. 2 September 2012. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
  82. ^ “The Fly’s Eye (1981–1993)”. HiRes. Archived from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  83. ^ “How Much Does a Baseball Weigh? – Baseball Weight Facts”. 4 January 2024. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  84. ^ “How fast does an average MLB pitcher throw? – TopVelocity”. 4 January 2024. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  85. ^ “Ionizing Radiation”. General Chemistry Topic Review: Nuclear Chemistry. Bodner Research Web. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  86. ^ “Vertical Jump Test”. Topend Sports. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 41–50 cm (males) 31–40 cm (females)
  87. ^ “Mass of an Adult”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 13 December 2011. 70 kg
  88. ^ Kinetic energy at start of jump = potential energy at high point of jump. Using a mass of 70 kg and a high point of 40 cm => energy = m×g×h = 70 kg × 9.8 m/s2 × 40×10−2 m = 274 J
  89. ^ “Latent Heat of Melting of some common Materials”. Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 10 June 2013. 334 kJ/kg
  90. ^ “Javelin Throw – Introduction”. IAAF. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
  91. ^ Young, Michael. “Developing Event Specific Strength for the Javelin Throw” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2011. For elite athletes, the velocity of a javelin release has been measured in excess of 30m/s
  92. ^ Calculated: 1/2 × 0.8 kg × (30 m/s)2 = 360 J
  93. ^ Greenspun, Philip. “Studio Photography”. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 13 December 2011. Most serious studio photographers start with about 2000 watts-seconds
  94. ^ “Shot Put – Introduction”. IAAF. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
  95. ^ Calculated: 1/2 × 7.26 kg × (14.7 m/s)2 = 784 J
  96. ^ Kopp, G.; Lean, J. L. (2011). “A new, lower value of total solar irradiance: Evidence and climate significance”. Geophysical Research Letters. 38 (1): n/a. Bibcode:2011GeoRL..38.1706K. doi:10.1029/2010GL045777.
  97. ^ “Fluids – Latent Heat of Evaporation”. Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 10 June 2013. 2257 kJ/kg
  98. ^ powerlabs.org – The PowerLabs Solid State Can Crusher!, 2002
  99. ^ “Hammer Throw – Introduction”. IAAF. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
  100. ^ Otto, Ralf M. “HAMMER THROW WR PHOTOSEQUENCE – YURIY SEDYKH” (PDF). Retrieved 4 November 2011. The total release velocity is 30.7 m/sec
  101. ^ Calculated: 1/2 × 7.26 kg × (30.7 m/s)2 = 3420 J
  102. ^ a b 4.2×109 J/ton of TNT-equivalent × (1 ton/1×106 grams) = 4.2×103 J/gram of TNT-equivalent
  103. ^ “.458 Winchester Magnum” (PDF). Accurate Powder. Western Powders Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 7 September 2010.
  104. ^ “speed of sound – Google Search”. 4 January 2024. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  105. ^ “Battery energy storage in various battery sizes”. AllAboutBatteries.com. Archived from the original on 4 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
  106. ^ “Energy Density of Carbohydrates”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  107. ^ “Energy Density of Protein”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  108. ^ “Energy Density of Fats”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  109. ^ a b “Energy Density of Gasoline”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  110. ^ Calculated: E = 1/2 m×v2 = 1/2 × (1×10−3 kg) × (1×104 m/s)2 = 5×104 J.
  111. ^ a b “List of Car Weights”. LoveToKnow. Retrieved 13 December 2011. 3000 to 12000 pounds
  112. ^ Calculated: Using car weights of 1 to 5 tons. E = 1/2 m×v2 = 1/2 × (1×103 kg) × (55 mph × 1600 m/mi / 3600 s/hr) = 3.0×105 J. E = 1/2 × (5×103 kg) × (55 mph × 1600 m/mi / 3600 s/hr) = 15×105 J.
  113. ^ Calculated: KE = 1/2 × 2×103 kg × (32 m/s)2 = 1.0×106 J
  114. ^ “Candies, MARS SNACKFOOD US, SNICKERS Bar (NDB No. 19155)”. USDA Nutrient Database. USDA. Archived from the original on 3 March 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  115. ^ “1/2*4kg*(1740m/s)^2 – Wolfram|Alpha”. www.wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  116. ^ “120mm KE-W A1 Armor-Piercing, Fin-Stabilizing, Discarding Sabot-Tracer”. General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  117. ^ a b “How to Balance the Food You Eat and Your Physical Activity and Prevent Obesity”. Healthy Weight Basics. National Heart Lung and Blood Institutde. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  118. ^ Calculated: 2000 food calories = 2.0×106 cal × 4.184 J/cal = 8.4×106 J
  119. ^ “What is Earth’s Escape Velocity? – Earth How”. 4 January 2024. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  120. ^ Calculated: 1/2 × m × v2 = 1/2 × 48.78 kg × (655 m/s)2 = 1.0×107 J.
  121. ^ Calculated: 2600 food calories = 2.6×106 cal × 4.184 J/cal = 1.1×107 J
  122. ^ Ackerman, Spencer. “Video: Navy’s Mach 8 Railgun Obliterates Record”. Wired. Retrieved 28 July 2024.
  123. ^ “Table 3.3 Consumer Price Estimates for Energy by Source, 1970–2009”. Annual Energy Review. US Energy Information Administration. 19 October 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2011. $28.90 per million BTU
  124. ^ Calculated J per dollar: 1 million BTU/$28.90 = 1×106 BTU / 28.90 dollars × 1.055×103 J/BTU = 3.65×107 J/dollar
  125. ^ Calculated cost per kWh: 1 kWh × 3.60×106 J/kWh / 3.65×107 J/dollar = 0.0986 dollar/kWh
  126. ^ “Energy in a Cubic Meter of Natural Gas”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
  127. ^ “The Olympic Diet of Michael Phelps”. WebMD. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
  128. ^ Cline, James E. D. “Energy to Space”. Retrieved 13 November 2011. 6.27×107 Joules / Kg
  129. ^ “Tour de France Winners, Podium, Times”. Bike Race Info. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  130. ^ “Watts/kg”. Flamme Rouge. Archived from the original on 2 January 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  131. ^ Calculated: 90 hr × 3600 seconds/hr × 5 W/kg × 65 kg = 1.1×108 J
  132. ^ Smith, Chris (6 March 2007). “How do Thunderstorms Work?”. The Naked Scientists. Retrieved 15 November 2011. It discharges about 1–10 billion joules of energy
  133. ^ “Powering up ATLAS’s mega magnet”. Spotlight on... CERN. Archived from the original on 30 November 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2011. magnetic energy of 1.1 Gigajoules
  134. ^ “ITP Metal Casting: Melting Efficiency Improvement” (PDF). ITP Metal Casting. U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 14 November 2011. 377 kWh/mt
  135. ^ Calculated: 380 kW-h × 3.6×106 J/kW-h = 1.37×109 J
  136. ^
  137. ^ “ESA Science & Technology – Jupiter”. sci.esa.int. Retrieved 19 November 2025.
  138. ^ Bell Fuels. “Lead-Free Gasoline Material Safety Data Sheet”. NOAA. Archived from the original on 20 August 2002. Retrieved 6 July 2008.
  139. ^ thepartsbin.com – Volvo Fuel Tank: Compare at The Parts Bin[permanent dead link], 6 May 2012
  140. ^
  141. ^ “Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers”. Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers: Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster [NIST NCSTAR 1]. September 2005. p. 20. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2024. Retrieved 11 September 2024.
  142. ^ “1/2*(440mph)^2*283,600lb – Wolfram|Alpha”. www.wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 11 September 2024.
  143. ^ “Power of a Human Heart”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 10 December 2011. The mechanical power of the human heart is ~1.3 watts
  144. ^ Calculated: 1.3 J/s × 80 years × 3.16×107 s/year = 3.3×109 J
  145. ^ “U.S. Household Electricity Uses: A/C, Heating, Appliances”. U.S. HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY REPORT. EIA. Retrieved 13 December 2011. For refrigerators in 2001, the average UEC was 1,239 kWh
  146. ^ Calculated: 1239 kWh × 3.6×106 J/kWh = 4.5×109 J
  147. ^ a b Energy Units Archived 10 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, by Arthur Smith, 21 January 2005
  148. ^ a b “‘8,164 kilograms of explosive’: These are the most powerful non-nuclear weapons ever built and their destructive impact”. Wion. Retrieved 4 June 2026.
  149. ^ a b “Orders of Magnitude – Nuclear Weapons Education Project”. nuclearweaponsedproj.mit.edu. Retrieved 4 June 2026.
  150. ^ “Top 10 Biggest Explosions”. Listverse. 28 November 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2011. a yield of 11 tons of TNT
  151. ^ Calculated: 11 tons of TNT-equivalent × 4.184×109 J/ton of TNT-equivalent = 4.6×1010 J
  152. ^ “Emission Facts: Average Annual Emissions and Fuel Consumption for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks”. EPA. Archived from the original on 26 July 2001. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 581 gallons of gasoline
  153. ^ “200 Mile-Per-Gallon Cars?”. Archived from the original on 19 December 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2011. a gallon of gas … 125 million joules of energy
  154. ^ Calculated: 581 gallons × 125×106 J/gal = 7.26×1010 J
  155. ^ Calculated: 1×106 watts × 86400 seconds/day = 8.6×1010 J
  156. ^ Calculated: 3.44×10−10 J/U-235-fission × 1×10−3 kg / (235 amu per U-235-fission × 1.66×10−27 amu/kg) = 8.82×10−10 J
  157. ^ “10 striking facts about lightning – Met Office”. 4 January 2024. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  158. ^ Calculated: 2000 kcal/day × 365 days/year × 80 years = 2.4×1011 J
  159. ^ “1/2*416m*1 million ton*9.81m/s^2 – Wolfram|Alpha”. www.wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  160. ^ Equation for calculating potential assumes that the towers’ center of mass is located halfway along the building’s height of ~416 meters.
  161. ^ “Why Did the World Trade Center Collapse? Science, Engineering, and Speculation”. www.tms.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024“…. The total weight of each tower was about 500,000 t.”{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  162. ^ “A330-300 Dimensions & key data”. Airbus. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 97530 litres
  163. ^ a b c “Air BP Handbook of Products” (PDF). BP. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 19 August 2011.
  164. ^ Calculated: 97530 liters × 0.804 kg/L × 43.15 MJ/kg = 3.38×1012 J
  165. ^ Calculated: 1×109 watts × 3600 seconds/hour
  166. ^ Weston, Kenneth. “Chapter 10. Nuclear Power Plants” (PDF). Energy Conversion. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2011. The thermal efficiency of a CANDU plant is only about 29%
  167. ^ “CANDU and Heavy Water Moderated Reactors”. Retrieved 12 December 2011. fuel burnup in a CANDU is only 6500 to 7500 MWd per metric ton uranium
  168. ^ Calculated: 7500×106 watt-days/tonne × (0.020 tonnes per bundle) × 86400 seconds/day = 1.3×1013 J of burnup energy. Electricity = burnup × ~29% efficiency = 3.8×1012 J
  169. ^ Calculated: 4.2×109 J/ton of TNT-equivalent × 1×103 tons/megaton = 4.2×1012 J/megaton of TNT-equivalent
  170. ^ “747 Classics Technical Specs”. Boeing. Archived from the original on 10 December 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 183,380 L
  171. ^ Calculated: 183380 liters × 0.804 kg/L × 43.15 MJ/kg = 6.36×1012 J
  172. ^ Rigby, S. E.; Lodge, T. J.; Alotaibi, S.; Barr, A. D.; Clarke, S. D.; Langdon, G. S.; Tyas, A. (1 September 2020). “Preliminary yield estimation of the 2020 Beirut explosion using video footage from social media”. Shock Waves. 30 (6): 671–675. Bibcode:2020ShWav..30..671R. doi:10.1007/s00193-020-00970-z. ISSN 1432-2153.
  173. ^ Pilger, Christoph; Gaebler, Peter; Hupe, Patrick; Kalia, Andre C.; Schneider, Felix M.; Steinberg, Andreas; Sudhaus, Henriette; Ceranna, Lars (8 July 2021). “Yield estimation of the 2020 Beirut explosion using open access waveform and remote sensing data”. Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 14144. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1114144P. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-93690-y. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8266808. PMID 34239015.
  174. ^ “A380-800 Dimensions & key data”. Airbus. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2011. 320,000 L
  175. ^ Calculated: 320,000 L × 0.804 kg/L × 43.15  MJ/kg = 11.1×1012 J
  176. ^ “International Space Station: The ISS to Date”. NASA. Archived from the original on 11 June 2015. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
  177. ^ “The wizards of orbits”. European Space Agency. Retrieved 10 December 2011. The International Space Station, for example, flies at 7.7 km/s in one of the lowest practicable orbits
  178. ^ Calculated: E = 1/2 m.v2 = 1/2 × 417000 kg × (7700m/s)2 = 1.2×1013 J
  179. ^ Interrante, Abbey (6 September 2024). “Parker Solar Probe”. blogs.nasa.gov. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  180. ^ “1/2*650kg*(430000mph)^2 – Wolfram|Alpha”. www.wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  181. ^ “NASA – NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details”. NASA. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  182. ^ Studies, Gorsebrook Research Institute for Atlantic Canada (1994). Ground Zero: A Reassessment of the 1917 Explosion in Halifax Harbour. Nimbus Pub. Limited and Gorsebrook Research Institute. ISBN 978-1-55109-095-5.
  183. ^ Veski, Siim; Heinsalu, Atko; Kirsimäe, Kalle; Poska, Anneli; Saarse, Leili (2001). “Ecological catastrophe in connection with the impact of the Kaali meteorite about 800–400 B.C. on the island of Saaremaa, Estonia”. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 36 (10): 1367–1375. Bibcode:2001M&PS…36.1367V. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2001.tb01830.x. ISSN 1086-9379.
  184. ^ In the reference, Veski et al. indicate the following values: for the main fragment 4 x 1012 J, for the total energy of the event 4.7 x 1012 J (20 kt of TNT)
  185. ^ “What was the yield of the Hiroshima bomb?”. Warbird’s Forum. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 21 kt
  186. ^ Calculated: 15 kt = 15×109 grams of TNT-equivalent × 4.2×103 J/gram TNT-equivalent = 6.3×1013 J
  187. ^ Hutterer, Eleanor (1 September 2022). “Revising Trinity | Los Alamos National Laboratory”. Eleanor Hutterer. Retrieved 5 June 2026.
  188. ^ Khan, F. A. (6 March 2020). “Estimating the photo-fission yield of the Trinity Test”. Scientific Reports. 10 (1) 4200. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.4200K. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61201-0. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7060208. PMID 32144384.
  189. ^ “Conversion from kg to J”. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  190. ^ Podvig, Pavel (7 May 2013). “Details of the RDS-1 device”. Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces.
  191. ^ “Joe 1 | Soviet Union Nuclear Tests | Nuclear Testing | Photographs | Media Gallery”. www.atomicarchive.com. Retrieved 5 June 2026.
  192. ^ Schumann, Anna (22 October 2025). “Why ‘Tactical’ Nuclear Weapons Are Anything But ‘Usable’“. Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. Retrieved 4 June 2026.
  193. ^ “Tactical Nuclear Weapons Explained: Yield, Delivery & Escalation Risk”. Missile Strikes.com. 9 March 2026.
  194. ^ a b “How much energy does a hurricane release?”. FAQ : HURRICANES, TYPHOONS, AND TROPICAL CYCLONES. NOAA. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  195. ^ “The Gathering Storms”. COSMOS. Archived from the original on 4 April 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  196. ^ a b c d “Country Comparison :: Electricity – consumption”. The World Factbook. CIA. Archived from the original on 28 January 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  197. ^ Calculated: 288.6×106 kWh × 3.60×106 J/kWh = 1.04×1015 J
  198. ^ Ceranna, Lars (1 January 2013). “A 500-kiloton airburst over Chelyabinsk and an enhanced hazard from small impactors”. Nature. 503 (7475): 238–241. Bibcode:2013Natur.503..238B. doi:10.1038/NATURE12741. PMID 24196713.
  199. ^ “JPL – Fireballs and bolides”. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. NASA. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
  200. ^ Popova, Olga; Khaibrakhmanov, Sergey A. (9 October 2025). “Chelyabinsk Airburst, Damage Assessment, Meteorite Recovery, and Characterization”. Science. 342 (6162): 1069–1073. doi:10.1126/science.1242642. PMID 24200813.
  201. ^ Leonard David (1 November 2013). “Russian Fireball Explosion Shows Meteor Risk Greater Than Thought”. Space. Retrieved 11 May 2026.
  202. ^ a b c d e f Glimsdal, S.; Pedersen, G. K.; Langtangen, H. P.; Shuvalov, V.; Dypvik, H. (2007). “Tsunami generation and propagation from the Mjølnir asteroid impact”. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 42 (9): 1473–1493. Bibcode:2007M&PS…42.1473G. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00586.x. ISSN 1086-9379.
  203. ^ Calculated: 4.2×109 J/ton of TNT-equivalent × 1×106 tons/megaton = 4.2×1015 J/megaton of TNT-equivalent
  204. ^ “Joe 19 | Soviet Union Nuclear Tests | Nuclear Testing | Photographs | Media Gallery”. www.atomicarchive.com. Retrieved 5 June 2026.
  205. ^ Kring, David A. (2017). “11”. Guidebook to the Geology of Barringer Meteorite Crater, Arizona (a.k.a. Meteor Crater) (2nd ed.). Lunar and Planetary Institute. pp. 119–120.
  206. ^ Karlstrom, K. E.; et al. (2025). “Grand Canyon landslide-dam and paleolake triggered by the Meteor Crater impact at 56 ka”. Geology. 53 (10): 821–826. Bibcode:2025Geo….53..821K. doi:10.1130/G53571.1.
  207. ^ Calculated: 3.02×109 kWh × 3.60×106 J/kWh = 1.09×1016 J
  208. ^ a b “Mount St. Helens — From the 1980 Eruption to 2000, Fact Sheet 036-00”. pubs.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2026.
  209. ^ Fabry, Merrill. “Nuclear Weapons History: Operation Ivy and First H-Bomb Test”. TIME. Archived from the original on 4 May 2026. Retrieved 5 June 2026.
  210. ^ ““Mike” Device is Tested”. www.atomicarchive.com. Retrieved 6 June 2026.
  211. ^ “Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion | Brookings”. 4 January 2024. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  212. ^ “0.145kg*c^2*(1/sqrt(1-0.99^2)-1) – Wolfram|Alpha”. www.wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  213. ^ Calculated: E = mc2 = 1 kg × (2.998×108 m/s)2 = 8.99×1016 J
  214. ^ Kletetschka, Gunther; Takáč, Marian; Smrcinova, Lucie; Kavková, Radana; Abbott, Dallas; LeCompte, Malcolm A.; Moore, Christopher R.; Kennett, James P.; Adedeji, Victor; Witwer, Timothy; Langworthy, Kurt A.; Razink, Joshua J.; Brogden, Valerie; Devener, Brian van; Perez, Jesus Paulo L. (8 February 2025). “New Evidence of High-Temperature, High-Pressure Processes at the Site of the 1908 Tunguska Event: Implications for Impact and Airburst Phenomena”. Airbursts and Cratering Impacts. 3 (1) 20250001. Bibcode:2025ACImp…3….1K. doi:10.14293/ACI.2025.0001. ISSN 2941-9085.
  215. ^ Wheeler, Lorien F.; Mathias, Donovan L. (15 July 2019). “Probabilistic assessment of Tunguska-scale asteroid impacts”. Icarus. 327: 83–96. Bibcode:2019Icar..327…83W. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2018.12.017. ISSN 0019-1035.
  216. ^ Chen, Ming; Koeberl, Christian; Tan, Dayong; Ding, Ping; Xiao, Wansheng; Wang, Ning; Chen, Yiwei; Xie, Xiande (2021). “Yilan crater, China: Evidence for an origin by meteorite impact”. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 56 (7): 1274–1292. Bibcode:2021M&PS…56.1274C. doi:10.1111/maps.13711. ISSN 1086-9379.
  217. ^ Deng, Yangfan; Bignardi, Samuel; Zhang, Zhou; Peng, Zhigang; Xiong, Cheng; Zhu, Sheng; Ma, Jixiao; Rong, Mianshui; Chen, Ming (17 April 2025). “Subsurface structure and impact process of Yilan Crater, northeastern China”. Communications Earth & Environment. 6 (1): 301. Bibcode:2025ComEE…6..301D. doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02274-5. ISSN 2662-4435.
  218. ^ Kieffer, Susan Werner (1981). “Blast dynamics at Mount St Helens on 18 May 1980”. Nature. 291 (5816): 568–570. Bibcode:1981Natur.291..568K. doi:10.1038/291568a0. ISSN 1476-4687.
  219. ^ “Mount Saint Helens Eruption – giph.io”. giph.io. Archived from the original on 26 September 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2026.
  220. ^ Choy, George L.; Boatwright, John (1 January 2007). “The Energy Radiated by the 26 December 2004 Sumatra–Andaman Earthquake Estimated from 10-Minute P -Wave Windows”. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 97 (1A): S18–S24. Bibcode:2007BuSSA..97S..18C. doi:10.1785/0120050623.
  221. ^ a b c The Earth has a cross section of 1.274×1014 square meters and the solar constant is 1361 watts per square meter. Note, however, that because portions of Earth reflect light well, the actual energy absorbed is about 1.2*10^17 watts, from an average albedo of 0.3.
  222. ^ “The Soviet Weapons Program – The Tsar Bomba”. The Nuclear Weapon Archive. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  223. ^ Calculated: 50×106 tons TNT-equivalent × 4.2×109 J/ton TNT-equivalent = 2.1×1017 J
  224. ^ Díaz, J. S.; Rigby, S. E. (1 September 2022). “Energetic output of the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha’apai volcanic eruption from pressure measurements”. Shock Waves. 32 (6): 553–561. Bibcode:2022ShWav..32..553D. doi:10.1007/s00193-022-01092-4.
  225. ^ Calculated to be 61 megatons of TNT, equivalent to 2.552×1017 J
  226. ^ Calculated: 115.6×109 kWh × 3.60×106 J/kWh = 4.16×1017 J
  227. ^ “1000*1/2*(0.1*299792458)^2*1/sqrt(1-0.1^2) joules – Wolfram|Alpha”. www.wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 11 September 2024.
  228. ^ “IMS observations of infrasound and acoustic-gravity waves produced by the January 2022 volcanic eruption of Hunga, Tonga: A global analysis”. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 591. 1 August 2022. doi:10.1016/j.ep (inactive 12 June 2026). ISSN 0012-821X. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2026 (link)
  229. ^ Harkrider, David; Press, Frank (1967). “The Krakatoa Air-Sea Waves: an Example of Pulse Propagation in Coupled Systems”. Geophysical Journal International. 13 (1–3): 149–159. Bibcode:1967GeoJ…13..149H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1967.tb02150.x. ISSN 0956-540X.
  230. ^ Alexander, R. McNeill (1989). Dynamics of Dinosaurs and Other Extinct Giants. Columbia University Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-231-06667-9. the explosion of the island volcano Krakatoa in 1883, had about 200 megatonnes energy.
  231. ^ Calculated: 200×106 tons of TNT equivalent × 4.2×109 J/ton of TNT equivalent = 8.4×1017 J
  232. ^ This value appears to be referred only to the third explosion on 27 August, 10.02 a.m. According to reports, the third explosion was by far the largest; it is associated to the biggest sound in the recorded history, the highest tsunami during the eruption and the most powerful shock waves rounded the world several times. 200 Megatons of TNT are often referred as the total energy released by the entire eruption, but it’s plausible that are rather the energy released by the single third explosion, considering the effects.[1][2]
  233. ^ “200-meter Meteorite Struck Hapcheon, Korea 50,000 Years Ago… First Impact Crater on Peninsula Confirmed”. DongA Science. 14 December 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2026.
  234. ^ Lim, Jaesoo; Hong, Sei-Sun; Han, Min; Yi, Sangheon; Kim, Sung Won (2021). “First finding of impact cratering in the Korean Peninsula”. Gondwana Research. 91: 121–128. Bibcode:2021GondR..91..121L. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2020.12.004. ISSN 1342-937X. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024.
  235. ^ Lee, Jin-Young; Shin, Seungwon; Yoon, Hyun Ho; Kim, Jin Cheul; Choi, Yire; Nahm, Wook-Hyun; Kim, Heejung (2023). “The Sedimentary records of the Hapcheon impact crater basin in Korea over the past 1.3 Ma”. Frontiers in Earth Science. 11 1102785. Bibcode:2023FrEaS..1102785L. doi:10.3389/feart.2023.1102785. ISSN 2296-6463.
  236. ^ Lim, Jaesoo; Kim, Youngeun; Park, Sujeong; Yi, Sangheon; Kim, So-Jeong; Park, Gyujun; Shin, Young Hong; Lee, Hang-Jae; An, Gio; Jung, Arum; Park, Sun Young; Chung, Donghoon; Kang, Il-Mo; Kim, Kyeong Ja; Kim, Sung Won (14 April 2026). “Discovery of stromatolite formation in post-impact hydrothermal lacustrine environments and its implications for early Earth”. Communications Earth & Environment. 7 (1): 334. Bibcode:2026ComEE…7..334L. doi:10.1038/s43247-026-03206-7. ISSN 2662-4435.
  237. ^ “Sentry: Earth Impact Monitoring”. cneos.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2026.
  238. ^ Morais, R.H.; et al. (2024). “HYPOTHETICAL APOPHIS DEEP OCEAN IMPACT – ENERGY ANALYSIS (Meeting)” (PDF). Universities Space Research Association.
  239. ^ “2602TWh to J – Wolfram|Alpha”. www.wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  240. ^ “WNA report: Nuclear power generation increased globally in 2023”. www.ans.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  241. ^ a b c d Yoshida, Masaki; Santosh, M. (1 July 2020). “Energetics of the Solid Earth: An integrated perspective”. Energy Geoscience. 1 (1–2): 28–35. Bibcode:2020EneG….1…28Y. doi:10.1016/j.engeos.2020.04.001.
  242. ^ Mizokami, Kyle (1 April 2019). “Here’s What Would Happen If We Blew Up All the World’s Nukes at Once”. Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  243. ^ Calculated: 3.741×1012 kWh × 3.600×106 J/kWh = 1.347×1019 J
  244. ^ “United States”. The World Factbook. USA. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  245. ^ Calculated: 3.953×1012 kWh × 3.600×106 J/kWh = 1.423×1019 J
  246. ^ a b Nicholson, Uisdean; Bray, Veronica J.; Gulick, Sean P. S.; Aduomahor, Benedict (2022). “The Nadir Crater offshore West Africa: A candidate Cretaceous-Paleogene impact structure”. Science Advances. 8 (33) eabn3096. Bibcode:2022SciA….8N3096N. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abn3096. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 9385158. PMID 35977017.
  247. ^ a b “World”. The World Factbook. CIA. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  248. ^ Calculated: 17.8×1012 kWh × 3.60×106 J/kWh = 6.41×1019 J
  249. ^ Calculated: 18.95×1012 kWh × 3.60×106 J/kWh = 6.82×1019 J
  250. ^ Klemetti, Erik (10 April 2015). “Tambora 1815: Just How Big Was The Eruption?”. Wired. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  251. ^ “1/6(1km^3)(3.5 g/cm^3)(20km/s)^2 – Wolfram|Alpha”. www.wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 11 September 2024.
  252. ^ “How often do asteroids strike Earth?”. Catalina Sky Survey. Retrieved 11 September 2024.
  253. ^ “Severe Weather: Hurricane energetics”. www.atmo.arizona.edu. Retrieved 24 May 2024.
  254. ^ Shuvalov, Valery; Gersonde, Rainer (2014). “Constraints on interpretation of the Eltanin impact from numerical simulations”. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 49 (7): 1171–1185. Bibcode:2014M&PS…49.1171S. doi:10.1111/maps.12326. ISSN 1086-9379.
  255. ^ Ward, Steven N.; Asphaug, Erik (2002). “Impact tsunami–Eltanin”. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. Ocean Impacts: Mechanisms and Environmental Perturbations. 49 (6): 1073–1079. Bibcode:2002DSRII..49.1073W. doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00147-3. ISSN 0967-0645.
  256. ^ Dominey-howes, Dale (2012). “The Eltanin asteroid impact: possible South Pacific palaeomegatsunami footprint and potential implications for the Pliocene–Pleistocene transition”. Journal of Quaternary Science. 27 (7): 660–670. Bibcode:2012JQS….27..660G. doi:10.1002/JQS.2571.
  257. ^ Weiss, Robert; Lynett, Patrick; Wünnemann, Kai (1 January 2015). “The Eltanin impact and its tsunami along the coast of South America: Insights for potential deposits”. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 409: 175–181. Bibcode:2015E&PSL.409..175W. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.10.050. ISSN 0012-821X.
  258. ^ a b c d e “Statistical Review of World Energy 2011” (PDF). BP. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
  259. ^ Calculated: 12002.4×106 tonnes of oil equivalent × 42×109 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 5.0×1020 J
  260. ^ Institute, Energy. “Home”. Statistical review of world energy. Retrieved 11 September 2024.
  261. ^ “2023 saw a second consecutive record year for global primary energy consumption as it grew by 2%, reaching 620 EJ.”
  262. ^ a b c “Global Uranium Resources to Meet Projected Demand | International Atomic Energy Agency”. iaea.org. June 2006. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  263. ^ “U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Generation”.
  264. ^ “U.S. EIA International Energy Outlook 2007”. eia.doe.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  265. ^ Final number is computed. Energy Outlook 2007 shows 15.9% of world energy is nuclear. IAEA estimates conventional uranium stock, at today’s prices is sufficient for 85 years. Convert billion kilowatt-hours to joules then: 6.25×1019×0.159×85 = 8.01×1020.
  266. ^ a b c Garvin, J.B.; et al. (2023). “REASSESSING THE PAST MILLION YEARS OF NEO IMPACT CRATERING ON EARTH VIA HIGH RESOLUTION DIGITAL TOPOGRAPHY (54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2023)” (PDF). USRA-Lunar and Planetary Institute.
  267. ^ Tsikalas, Filippos; Dypvik, Henning; Smelror, Morten, eds. (2010). “The Mjølnir Impact Event and its Consequences”. Impact Studies. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-88260-2. ISBN 978-3-540-88259-6. ISSN 1612-8338.
  268. ^ Dypvik, Henning; Smelror, Morten; Sandbakken, Pål T.; Salvigsen, O.; Kalleson, E. (14 November 2006). “Traces of the marine Mjølnir impact event”. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 241 (3): 621–636. Bibcode:2006PPP…241..621D. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.04.013. ISSN 0031-0182.
  269. ^ Garvin, James B.; Anderson, Connor J.; Melocik, Katherine A.; McClain, Devin R.; Sinno, Scott S.; Noh, Myoung-Jong; Tucker, Compton J. (6 April 2026). “The Zhamanshin Impact Event: Potential Implications for Environmental Responses and Biological Linkages on Earth and Beyond”. arXiv:2604.04884v1 [astro-ph.EP].
  270. ^ Lana, Cris (1 January 2009). “The Araguainha impact: a South American Permo-Triassic catastrophic event”. Geology Today. 25 (1): 21–28. Bibcode:2009GeolT..25…21L. doi:10.1111/J.1365-2451.2009.00701.X.
  271. ^ Tohver, Eric (1 January 2013). “Shaking a methane fizz: Seismicity from the Araguainha impact event and the Permian–Triassic global carbon isotope record”. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 387: 66–75. Bibcode:2013PPP…387…66T. doi:10.1016/J.PALAEO.2013.07.010.
  272. ^ a b c d e f g h Racki, Grzegorz; Koeberl, Christian (2024). “Impact catastrophism versus mass extinctions in retrospective, perspective and prospective: Toward a Phanerozoic impact event stratigraphy”. Earth-Science Reviews. 259 104904. Bibcode:2024ESRv..25904904R. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2024.104904. ISSN 0012-8252.
  273. ^ Kenkmann, Thomas; Afifi, Abdulkader M.; Stewart, Simon A.; Poelchau, Michael H.; Cook, Douglas J.; Neville, Allen S. (2015). “Saqqar: A 34 km diameter impact structure in Saudi Arabia”. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 50 (11): 1925–1940. Bibcode:2015M&PS…50.1925K. doi:10.1111/maps.12555. ISSN 1945-5100.
  274. ^ Calculated: “6608.9 trillion cubic feet” => 6608.9×103 billion cubic feet × 0.025 million tonnes of oil equivalent/billion cubic feet × 1×106 tonnes of oil equivalent/million tonnes of oil equivalent × 42×109 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 6.9×1021 J
  275. ^ Collins, Gareth S.; Wünnemann, Kai (2005). “How big was the Chesapeake Bay impact? Insight from numerical modeling”. Geology. 33 (12): 925–928. Bibcode:2005Geo….33..925C. doi:10.1130/G21854.1.
  276. ^ a b Deutsch, Alexander; Koeberl, Christian (2006). “Establishing the link between the Chesapeake Bay impact structure and the North American tektite strewn field: The Sr-Nd isotopic evidence”. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 41 (5): 689–703. Bibcode:2006M&PS…41..689D. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2006.tb00985.x.
  277. ^ a b Boschi, S.; et al. (2024). “Reconstructing Extraterrestrial Flux in the Late Eocene: New Perspectives from Popigai and Chesapeake Bay Stratigraphic intervals” (PDF). Universities Space Research Association (86th Annual Meeting of the Meteoritical Society 2024).
  278. ^ a b Vogt, Manfred; Trieloff, Mario; Bohaty, Steve M. (15 March 2025). Late Eocene impact layers in the Southern Ocean: A geochemical and geochronological archive of the Popigai impact event (Report). Copernicus Meetings.
  279. ^ a b Wade, Bridget S.; Cheng, Natalie K. Y. (4 December 2024). “No paleoclimatic anomalies are associated with the late Eocene extraterrestrial impact events”. Communications Earth & Environment. 5 (1): 710. Bibcode:2024ComEE…5..710W. doi:10.1038/s43247-024-01874-x. ISSN 2662-4435.
  280. ^ a b c d Rampino, Michael R.; Caldeira, Ken (2017). “Correlation of the largest craters, stratigraphic impact signatures, and extinction events over the past 250 Myr”. Geoscience Frontiers. 8 (6): 1241–1245. Bibcode:2017GeoFr…8.1241R. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2017.03.002. ISSN 1674-9871.
  281. ^ a b c d e Rampino, Michael R. (2020). “Relationship between impact-crater size and severity of related extinction episodes”. Earth-Science Reviews. 201 102990. Bibcode:2020ESRv..20102990R. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102990. ISSN 0012-8252.
  282. ^ Ganis, G.; Willoughby, Ralph; Cicimurri, David; Whittecar, G.; Hageman, Steven (1 May 2025). “Evidence for Distal Bolide Impact and Tsunami Deposits in the Upper Atlantic Coastal Plain of Moore County (North Carolina, USA) generated by the Eocene Chesapeake Bay Bolide Impact”. Southeastern Geology. 55 (1).
  283. ^ Calculated: “188.8 thousand million tonnes” => 188.8×109 tonnes of oil × 42×109 J/tonne of oil = 7.9×1021 J
  284. ^ Cheng, Lijing; Foster, Grant; Hausfather, Zeke; Trenberth, Kevin E.; Abraham, John (2022). “Improved Quantification of the Rate of Ocean Warming”. Journal of Climate. 35 (14): 4827–4840. Bibcode:2022JCli…35.4827C. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-21-0895.1.Calculated per reference: 0.58 W·m−2 is 9.3×1021 J·yr−1 in the global domain
  285. ^ Matsuzawa, Toru (1 June 2014). “The Largest Earthquakes We Should Prepare for”. Journal of Disaster Research. 9 (3): 248–251. Bibcode:2014JDisR…9..248M. doi:10.20965/jdr.2014.p0248.
  286. ^ Calculated: 1.27×1014 m2 × 1370 W/m2 × 86400 s/day = 1.5×1022 J
  287. ^ Holm-Alwmark, Sanna; Rae, Auriol S. P.; Ferrière, Ludovic; Alwmark, Carl; Collins, Gareth S. (2 October 2017). “Combining shock barometry with numerical modeling: Insights into complex crater formation—The example of the Siljan impact structure (Sweden)”. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 52 (12): 2521–2549. Bibcode:2017M&PS…52.2521H. doi:10.1111/maps.12955.
  288. ^ Grieve, Richard (1 January 1983). “The Manicouagan Impact Structure: An analysis of its original dimensions and form”. Journal of Geophysical Research. 88: 807. Bibcode:1983LPSC…13..807G. doi:10.1029/JB088IS02P0A807.
  289. ^ Hodych, Joseph (1 January 1992). “Did the Manicouagan impact trigger end-of-Triassic mass extinction?”. Geology. 20 (1): 51. Bibcode:1992Geo….20…51H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0051:DTMITE>2.3.CO;2.
  290. ^ Onoue, Tetsuji; Sato, Honami; Yamashita, Daisuke; Ikehara, Minoru; Yasukawa, Kazutaka; Fujinaga, Koichiro; Kato, Yasuhiro; Matsuoka, Atsushi (2016). “Bolide impact triggered the Late Triassic extinction event in equatorial Panthalassa”. Scientific Reports. 6 29609. Bibcode:2016NatSR…629609O. doi:10.1038/srep29609. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4937377. PMID 27387863.
  291. ^ Racki, Grzegorz (2012). “The Alvarez Impact Theory of Mass Extinction; Limits to its Applicability and the “Great Expectations Syndrome”“. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 57 (4): 681. Bibcode:2012AcPaP..57..681R. doi:10.4202/APP.2011.0058. ISSN 0567-7920.
  292. ^ Rowley, David B.; Spray, John G.; Kelley, Simon P. (1998). “Evidence for a late Triassic multiple impact event on Earth”. Nature. 392 (6672): 171. Bibcode:1998Natur.392..171S. doi:10.1038/32397. ISSN 0028-0836.
  293. ^ Cohen, Benjamin E.; Mark, Darren F.; Lee, Martin R.; Simpson, Sarah L. (2017). “A new high-precision 40Ar/39Ar age for the Rochechouart impact structure: At least 5 Ma older than the Triassic–Jurassic boundary”. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 52 (8): 1600–1611. Bibcode:2017M&PS…52.1600C. doi:10.1111/maps.12880. ISSN 1086-9379.
  294. ^ Schmieder, Martin; Jourdan, Fred; Tohver, Eric; Cloutis, Edward A. (2014). “40Ar/39Ar age of the Lake Saint Martin impact structure (Canada) – Unchaining the Late Triassic terrestrial impact craters”. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 406: 37. Bibcode:2014E&PSL.406…37S. doi:10.1016/J.EPSL.2014.08.037. ISSN 0012-821X.
  295. ^ Gostin, Victor A.; Williams, George E. (2005). “Acraman – Bunyeroo impact event (Ediacaran), South Australia, and environmental consequences: twenty-five years on”. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 52 (4–5): 607. Bibcode:2005AuJES..52..607W. doi:10.1080/08120090500181036. ISSN 0812-0099.
  296. ^ Collins, Alan S.; Blades, Morgan L.; Subarkah, Darwinaji; Cooke, Holly; Edwards, Lesley; Forbister, Chelsea; Jolly, Jake; Lloyd, Jarred C.; Gilbert, Sarah E.; Löhr, Stefan; Farkaš, Juraj; Gostin, Victor (2026). “Age of the Acraman impact ejecta layer in the adelaide superbasin and Implications on clay-mineral provenance from the Rb–Sr systematics of middle Ediacaran shales”. Precambrian Research. 435 108015. Bibcode:2026PreR..43508015C. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2026.108015. ISSN 0301-9268.
  297. ^ Calculated: 860938 million tonnes of coal => 860938×106 tonnes of coal × (1/1.5 tonne of oil equivalent / tonne of coal) × 42×109 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 2.4×1022 J
  298. ^ Calculated: natural gas + petroleum + coal = 6.9×1021 J + 7.9×1021 J + 2.4×1022 J = 3.9×1022 J
  299. ^ “ISS: International Space Station”. www.esa.int. Retrieved 31 October 2025.
  300. ^ Bolonkin, Alexander (1 January 2002). “Inexpensive Cable Space Launcher of High Capability”. National Academy of Sciences – National Research Council Elgin AFB, United States. pp. 6 “… equals 518 tons for K=4 (this is close to the current International Space Station weighting [sic] 450 tons). The equalizer is…”
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  525. ^ A research claims that this is instead a boson stars merging with approximately 8 times more probability than the black hole case; if so, the existence and the collision of boson stars there would be confirmed together. Furthermore, the energy released and the distance would be reduced.[3] See the following note for the link of the research
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  555. ^ Diameter of Observable Universe: 28.5 Gpc. Volume: 1/6 × pi × D^3 = 12121. Average per Gpc^3 : 1.462e+70 / 12121 ~ 1.206e+66 J.
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  557. ^ Details of calculation: WMAP 10 year survey’s estimate of mass-energy density * volume of Observable Universe * percentage of which is ordinary matter: [9.9e-30 g/cm^3] * [3.566e+80 m^3] * [0.046] * [c^2] = 1.46e+70 Joules.
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