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GrapheneOS[b] is a free and open-source, privacy- and security-focused, Android-based operating system for Google Pixel and future Motorola devices.[6] GrapheneOS is built on the Android Open Source Project. It focuses on researching and improving the privacy and security of Android. GrapheneOS is developed by the GrapheneOS Foundation, a Canadian nonprofit corporation.

History

See also: CopperheadOS § History

The main developer, Daniel Micay, co-founded and originally worked on CopperheadOS, until a schism over software licensing between the co-founders of Copperhead Limited led to Micay’s dismissal from the company in 2018.[7] Micay continued working on the Android Hardening project, which was renamed to GrapheneOS and announced in April 2019 as the “true successor” to CopperheadOS, with a goal of restoring the same functions.[7][8] The project’s website states that CopperheadOS was renamed to GrapheneOS.[9]

In March 2022, two GrapheneOS apps, “Secure Camera” and “Secure PDF Viewer”, were released on the Google Play Store.[10]

Also in March 2022, GrapheneOS released Android 12L for Google Pixel devices before Google did, second to ProtonAOSP.[11]

In July 2025, the GrapheneOS Foundation stated it was pursuing a partnership with a “major Android OEM” with the goal of engineering devices with official GrapheneOS support that meet the project’s extensive hardware and vendor support requirements.[12][13]
In March 2026 an official announcement was made, revealing that the partner is Motorola Mobility.[14]

Features

GrapheneOS’ default “App Store” (formerly known as just “Apps”)

Sandboxed Google Play

By default Google apps are not present on GrapheneOS,[6][15] but users can install a sandboxed version of Google Play Services from the pre-installed “App Store”.[15] The sandboxed Google Play Services implementation allows access to the Google Play Store and apps dependent on it, along with features including push notifications (Firebase Cloud Messaging) and in-app payments.[15]

This differs from most other custom Android distributions, such as LineageOS, CalyxOS, iodéOS or /e/OS, that replace Google Play Services with microG. According to some analysts, the microG implementation is problematic because it can log users out of the Play Store and not allow them to download more apps.[16]

In December 2023, Android Auto support was added to GrapheneOS, allowing users to install it via the App Store.[17] The Sandboxed Google Play compatibility layer settings adds a new permission menu with 4 toggles for granting the minimal access required for wired Android Auto, wireless Android Auto, audio routing and phone calls.[18]

GrapheneOS provides stub implementations for multiple features of Google Play Services, including Wi-Fi positioning, geocoding, and reverse geocoding. By default, all location requests are rerouted to the regular AOSP geolocation subsystem, which uses Assisted GNSS (A-GNSS) data and performs the location calculations locally. The GrapheneOS Foundation provides proxy servers for both Secure User Plane Location (SUPL) and Predicted Satellite Data Service (PSDS).
GrapheneOS improves the privacy of PSDS on devices using Qualcomm GNSS hardware by removing the User-Agent header containing unique hardware identifiers, such as the serial number of the chip.[1]
Optionally, the use of the Apple Wi-Fi positioning system, either directly or through a proxy hosted by the GrapheneOS Foundation, can be enabled in the settings. The GrapheneOS Foundation also hosts an instance of the Nominatim geocoder, which uses OpenStreetMap data.[19][20]

Security and privacy features

GrapheneOS introduces revocable network access and sensors permission toggles for each installed app.[6][21] GrapheneOS also introduces a PIN scrambling option for the lock screen as well as a feature called Duress password which will wipe on-device personal data when entered on lock screen instead of a regular PIN/password.[22][23]

GrapheneOS randomly generates a new MAC address every time a Wi-Fi connection is established, instead of the default Android behavior of randomizing the address per Wi-Fi network.[7][24]

GrapheneOS includes a feature that automatically initiates a reboot of the device when at rest for a set time period in order to revert from the after first unlock (AFU) state to before first unlock (BFU), wiping the cryptographic keys used for disk encryption from RAM. It aims to make brute-force attacks significantly more difficult by enforcing the throttling of unlock attempts through the secure element. The automatic reboot feature is enabled by default and configured to activate after 18 hours. The time period can be set to values between 10 minutes and 72 hours in the settings.[25][20]
iOS 18 implemented a similar feature called Inactivity Reboot with a fixed time of 7 days. The time period was shortened to 72 hours in version 18.1.[26][27][28] It is not clear whether Apple was inspired by GrapheneOS.

It also includes automatic Wi-Fi and Bluetooth disabling, along with software and hardware level disabling of the USB-C port and pogo pins (as found on the Pixel Tablet). GrapheneOS can also disable the microphone, camera, and sensors for apps. Additionally, it offers the Contact and Storage Scopes feature, which allows users to select which specific contacts or files/folders an app can access.[20]

A hardened Chromium-based web browser and WebView implementation known as Vanadium, is developed by GrapheneOS and included as the default web browser and system WebView.[21] It includes automatic updates, process and site-level sandboxing, disabling the V8 JavaScript just-in-time (JIT) compiler by default for attack surface reduction and built-in ad and tracker blocking.[29]

Auditor, a hardware-based attestation app, developed by GrapheneOS, which “provide strong hardware-based verification of the authenticity and integrity of the firmware/software on the device” is also included.[20] The app also includes an optional, scheduled remote verification feature, which runs in the background and performs regular verifications against the GrapheneOS attestation service. It can alert users via email if the device fails to provide valid attestations in time. The remote attestation interval and permitted time before an alert can be configured by the user using the web portal.[30] Both the Auditor app and the AttestationServer backend are open source and permissively licensed under the MIT license.[31]

Apps like Secure Camera and Secure PDF Viewer offer features such as automatic removal of Exif metadata and protection against malicious code in PDF files by opening them within a sandboxed PDF.js environment in the hardened Vanadium WebView.[32]

GrapheneOS also includes a hardened memory allocator (hardened_malloc) intended to provide substantial defenses against common classes of vulnerabilities such as heap memory corruption.[33] In addition, its Chromium-based browser/WebView (Vanadium) enables further exploit mitigations beyond upstream defaults (e.g., type-based control-flow integrity (CFI), stronger stack-smashing protection (SSP) or zero-initialization of variables).[20][34]

Unlike AOSP, the stock Pixel operating system, and other Android-based systems, GrapheneOS heavily makes use of the memory tagging extension (MTE) found in the processor cores of ARM chips using the ARMv8.5-A architecture or newer.[35][36] The first devices on the market featuring MTE-enabled processors were Google’s Pixel 8 and Pixel 8 Pro models released in October 2023.[37] GrapheneOS added support for the feature in November of the same year.[38]
In March 2024, the team reported that the feature helped it uncover a high-severity memory corruption vulnerability in an Android Bluetooth Low Energy system component.[39] The bug was acknowledged by Google and became known as CVE-2024-23694.[40] It was fixed in the May 2024 Pixel Update Bulletin.[41]

The underlying Linux kernel is covered by the hardware tag-based KernelAddressSanitizer (KASan).[42]

Installation

GrapheneOS currently is only compatible with Google Pixel devices,[43] due to specific requirements that GrapheneOS has for adding support for a new device, including an unlockable bootloader and proper implementation of verified boot.[44][13] In October 2025, GrapheneOS said that it was working with a “major” Android OEM on future devices that would support the OS on Qualcomm Snapdragon platforms, [45][46][47] and that they will be the flagship devices, expected to appear in Q4 2026 or Q1 2027.[48] In March 2026, it was revealed that this partner is Motorola Mobility, and a device list will be released some time later that year.[14]

The operating system can be installed from various platforms, including Windows, macOS, Linux, and Android devices. Two installation methods are available: a web-based installer, recommended for most users, and a command-line based installer, intended for more experienced users.[49][50]

The web installer makes use of the WebUSB API and is based on the fastboot.js library, a JavaScript implementation of the Fastboot utility developed by Danny Lin. It has been inspired by Google’s Android Flash Tool, which uses the same API for performing the installation in the browser. It is currently only supported in Chromium-based web browsers. Unlike the command-line installation script, it does not require the installation of any additional software.

Jack Wallen of ZDNET described the process process as follows: “It sounds difficult, but it’s really not.”, and that it took him roughly ten minutes to complete the installation”.[51]

Reception

In 2019, Georg Pichler of Der Standard, and other news sources, quoted Edward Snowden saying on Twitter, “If I were configuring a smartphone today, I’d use Daniel Micay’s GrapheneOS as the base operating system.”[52]

In discussing why services should not force users to install proprietary apps, Lennart Mühlenmeier of netzpolitik.org suggested GrapheneOS as an alternative to Apple or Google.[53]

Svět Mobilně and Webtekno repeated the suggestions that GrapheneOS is a good security- and privacy-oriented replacement for standard Android.[54][55]

In a detailed review of GrapheneOS for Golem.de, Moritz Tremmel and Sebastian Grüner said they were able to use GrapheneOS similarly to other Android systems, while enjoying more freedom from Google, without noticing differences from “additional memory protection, but that’s the way it should be.” They concluded GrapheneOS cannot change how “Android devices become garbage after three years at the latest”, but “it can better secure the devices during their remaining life while protecting privacy.”[7]

In June 2021, reviews of GrapheneOS, KaiOS, AliOS, and Tizen OS, were published in Cellular News. The review of GrapheneOS called it “arguably the best mobile operating system in terms of privacy and security.” However, they criticized GrapheneOS for its inconvenience to users, saying “GrapheneOS is completely de-Googled and will stay that way forever—at least according to the developers.” They also noticed a “slight performance decrease” and said “it might take two full seconds for an app—even if it’s just the Settings app—to fully load.”[56]

In March 2022, writing for How-To Geek Joe Fedewa said that Google apps were not included due to concerns over privacy, and GrapheneOS also did not include a default app store. Instead, Fedewa suggested, F-Droid could be used.[6]

In 2022, Jonathan Lamont of MobileSyrup reviewed GrapheneOS installed on a Pixel 3, after one week of use. He called GrapheneOS install process “straightforward” and concluded that he liked GrapheneOS overall, but criticized the post-install as “often not a seamless experience like using an unmodified Pixel or an iPhone“, attributing his experience to his “over-reliance on Google apps” and the absence of some “smart” features in GrapheneOS default keyboard and camera apps, in comparison to software from Google.[15]

In his initial impressions post a week prior, Lamont said that after an easy install there were issues with permissions for Google’s Messages app, and difficulty importing contacts; Lamont then concluded, “Anyone looking for a straightforward experience may want to avoid GrapheneOS or other privacy-oriented Android experiences since the privacy gains often come at the expense of convenience and ease of use.”[57]

In July 2022, Charlie Osborne of ZDNET suggested that individuals who suspect a Pegasus infection use a secondary device with GrapheneOS for secure communication.[58]

In January 2023, a Swiss startup company, Apostrophy AG, announced AphyOS, which is a subscription fee-based Android operating system and services “built atop” GrapheneOS.[59][60] The GrapheneOS team dismissed the project being based on GrapheneOS as misleading marketing due to AphyOS being based on an earlier version of Android, using the LineageOS update client and other inconsistencies.[61]

GrapheneOS was reviewed by Jesse Smith of DistroWatch and by Jonathan Corbet of LWN.net in March and July 2025 respectively.[62][63]

Jack Wallen of ZDNET reviewed GrapheneOS in November 2025 in an article titled “I finally tried GrapheneOS on my Pixel, and it’s the secure Android alternative I’ve been waiting for”. He described that the development team “takes usability seriously”, and that the operating system looks and feels like Android.[51]

In late 2025, GrapheneOS moved its infrastructure away from servers hosted by French provider OVHcloud over privacy and security concerns.[64][65] This applies to both servers located inside France, as well as Canadian servers owned by the company. The project stated, “France isn’t a safe country for open source privacy projects. They expect backdoors in encryption and for device access too. Secure devices and services are not going to be allowed (in France).”
France voted in favor of a proposed, controversial EU measure commonly referred to as Chat Control which could require providers to create and open a backdoor to their services to enable authorities to scan user content.[66][67]

GrapheneOS gained attention in the media in March 2026 after stating the project would not comply with planned and heavily criticized age verification laws such as the California Digital Age Assurance Act (Assembly Bill 1043) or Brazil’s Digital Statute for Children and Adolescents (Law No. 15,211/2025), even if it meant that future Motorola devices that will come with the OS preinstalled couldn’t be sold in these regions.[68]

See also

References and notes

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  2. ^ a b c “Federal Corporation Information – 1485757-7”. Government of Canada. 9 December 2025.
  3. ^ “History – GrapheneOS”. grapheneos.org. Retrieved 18 September 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
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  7. ^ a b c d Tremmel, Moritz; Grüner, Sebastian (11 December 2019). “GrapheneOS: Ein gehärtetes Android ohne Google, bitte” [GrapheneOS: A hardened Android without Google, please]. Golem.de (in German). pp. 1–3. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
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  9. ^ De Rentiis, Katharina; Geus, Julian; Freiling, Felix (1 March 2026). “The investigator’s friend and foe: A forensic analysis of GrapheneOS”. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. DFRWS EU 2026 – Selected Papers from the 13th Annual Digital Forensics Research Conference Europe. 56 302048. doi:10.1016/j.fsidi.2026.302048. ISSN 2666-2817.
  10. ^ Hazarika, Skanda (4 March 2022). “GrapheneOS brings its camera and PDF viewer apps to the Play Store”. XDA. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
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  12. ^ “GrapheneOS (@GrapheneOS@grapheneos.social)”. GrapheneOS Mastodon. 19 July 2025. Retrieved 10 April 2026. We’re working with a major OEM towards a subset of their future devices meeting our hardware security and update requirements. The goal is for those to have official GrapheneOS support. Initially, these will only be flagship devices because SoC security features we care about are only on flagship SoC chips for now.
  13. ^ a b “Which devices will be supported in the future? – Frequently Asked Questions”. grapheneos.org. Archived from the original on 7 February 2025. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
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  22. ^ Speight, Adam (29 September 2021). “This is why James Bond doesn’t use an iPhone”. Wired UK. ISSN 1357-0978. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
  23. ^ Wankhede, Calvin (10 August 2025). “I use a duress PIN to protect my data — here’s how it works and why everyone needs one”. Android Authority. Retrieved 7 March 2026.
  24. ^ Valeri, Vitor (17 June 2022). “O que é o GrapheneOS? Como ele aumenta a segurança e a privacidade do celular?”. Oficina da Net (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
  25. ^ Toulas, Bill (14 January 2024). “GrapheneOS: Frequent Android auto-reboots block firmware exploits”. BleepingComputer. Archived from the original on 5 December 2025. Retrieved 5 April 2026.
  26. ^ Cox, Joseph (7 November 2024). “Police Freak Out at iPhones Mysteriously Rebooting Themselves, Locking Cops Out”. 404 Media. Retrieved 5 April 2026.
  27. ^ Clover, Juli (14 November 2024). “iOS 18 Security Feature Causes iPhone to Reboot After Three Days of Inactivity”. MacRumors. Retrieved 5 April 2026.
  28. ^ Franceschi-Bicchierai, Lorenzo (14 November 2024). “New Apple security feature reboots iPhones after 3 days, researchers confirm”. TechCrunch. Retrieved 5 April 2026.
  29. ^ Goodwin, Richard (4 April 2024). “GrapheneOS 101: What You Need To Know”. KnowYourMobile. Retrieved 17 April 2025.
  30. ^ “Tutorial | attestation.app”. attestation.app. Retrieved 11 March 2026.
  31. ^ “Source | attestation.app”. attestation.app. Retrieved 11 March 2026.
  32. ^ Wilde, Damien (16 April 2024). “GrapheneOS review: De-Googled goodness [Video]”. 9to5Google. Retrieved 30 January 2025.
  33. ^ Stefanski, Nicolas (22 September 2025). “Exploring GrapheneOS secure allocator: Hardened Malloc”. Synacktiv. Archived from the original on 10 January 2026. Retrieved 11 April 2026.
  34. ^ “Usage guide”. GrapheneOS. Retrieved 3 November 2025.
  35. ^ Bannister, Steve (5 August 2019). “Memory Tagging Extension: Enhancing memory safety through architecture”. developer.arm.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2026. Retrieved 12 April 2026.
  36. ^ “GrapheneOS (@GrapheneOS@grapheneos.social)”. GrapheneOS Mastodon. 10 November 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2026. GrapheneOS on the Pixel 8 is the first platform using ARM MTE in production and it’s such a massive improvement for exploit protection that it has to be considered a hard requirement going forward.
  37. ^ Brand, Mark (3 November 2023). “First handset with MTE on the market”. Project Zero. Retrieved 12 April 2026.
  38. ^ “GrapheneOS now has hardware memory tagging support in our Stable channel. Memory tagging greatly improves protection against targeted attacks. Thanks to hardware support on the Pixel 8 and Pixel 8 Pro, it’s extremely low overhead despite the massive benefits it’s able to provide”. GrapheneOS Mastodon. 2 November 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2026.
  39. ^ “GrapheneOS (@GrapheneOS@grapheneos.social)”. GrapheneOS Mastodon. 9 March 2024. Retrieved 12 April 2026.
  40. ^ “Android security acknowledgements”. source.android.com. Retrieved 12 April 2026. Daniel Micay at the GrapheneOS Foundation CVE-2024-23694
  41. ^ “Pixel Update Bulletin—May 2024”. source.android.com. 13 June 2024. Retrieved 12 April 2026.
  42. ^ “Kernel Address Sanitizer (KASAN) — The Linux Kernel documentation”. www.kernel.org. Retrieved 12 April 2026.
  43. ^ “Which devices are supported? – Frequently Asked Questions”. grapheneos.org. Archived from the original on 7 February 2025. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  44. ^ Perkins, Stephen (16 June 2022). “GrapheneOS: Everything you need to know about the privacy-focused Android fork”. Android Police. Retrieved 17 April 2025.
  45. ^ Sharma, Adamya (13 October 2025). “GrapheneOS is finally ready to break free from Pixels, and it may never look back”. Android Authority. Archived from the original on 23 March 2026. Retrieved 10 April 2026.
  46. ^ Schoon, Ben (14 October 2025). “GrapheneOS will drop Google Pixel exclusivity with ‘major’ Snapdragon-powered devices coming”. 9to5Google. Archived from the original on 17 January 2026. Retrieved 10 April 2026.
  47. ^ Floemer, Andreas (15 October 2025). “Custom ROM GrapheneOS coming to smartphones from major manufacturer”. heise online. Archived from the original on 2 March 2026. Retrieved 10 April 2026.
  48. ^ Pandey, Rajesh (19 November 2025). “GrapheneOS’s big hardware debut is more than a year away”. Android Police. Archived from the original on 3 April 2026. Retrieved 10 April 2026.
  49. ^ “Install | GrapheneOS”. grapheneos.org. Retrieved 12 April 2026.
  50. ^ Perkins, Stephen (16 June 2022). “How to install GrapheneOS”. Android Police. Retrieved 16 April 2025.
  51. ^ a b Wallen, Jack (21 November 2025). Picaro, Elyse Betters (ed.). “I finally tried GrapheneOS on my Pixel, and it’s the secure Android alternative I’ve been waiting for”. ZDNET. Archived from the original on 4 April 2026. Retrieved 11 April 2026.
  52. ^ Snowden, Edward (21 September 2019). “If I were configuring a smartphone today, I’d use @DanielMicay’s @GrapheneOS as the base operating system. I’d desolder the microphones and keep the radios (cellular, wifi, and bluetooth) turned off when I didn’t need them. I would route traffic through the @torproject network”. Twitter. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2023.
  53. ^ Mühlenmeier, Lennart (19 July 2019). “Warum Post, Bank und Co. ihre Kunden nicht zwingen sollten, Apps zu benutzen” [Why Post, Bank and Co. shouldn’t force their customers to use apps]. netzpolitik.org (in German). Archived from the original on 18 September 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  54. ^ Šlik, Jáchym (6 April 2019). “GrapheneOS chce napravit bezpečnostní prohřešky Androidu” [GrapheneOS wants to fix Android security violations]. Svět Mobilně (in Czech). Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2019.
  55. ^ Kalelioğlu, Eray (3 April 2019). “Android Tabanlı İşletim Sistemi ‘GrapheneOS’ ile Tanışın” [Meet the GrapheneOS Android-Based Operating System]. Webtekno (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2019.
  56. ^ Diane (28 June 2021). “GrapheneOS: A Hardened Android Alternative (Review)”. CellularNews. Archived from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  57. ^ Lamont, Jonathan (13 March 2022). “I replaced Android on a Pixel 3 with an Android-based privacy OS”. MobileSyrup. Blue Ant Media. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
  58. ^ Osborne, Charlie (30 May 2024). Windsor, Alyson (ed.). “How to find and remove spyware from your phone”. ZDNET. Archived from the original on 20 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
  59. ^ Savov, Vlad (16 January 2023). “Swiss Startup Takes On Apple and Google With Privacy-First OS”. Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 23 May 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  60. ^ Savov, Vlad (17 January 2023). “Swiss startup takes on Apple and Google with privacy-first OS”. The Star. Archived from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  61. ^ “Apostrophy mobile system, Punkt MC02”.
  62. ^ Smith, Jesse (31 March 2025). “DistroWatch Weekly, Issue 1115”. DistroWatch. Archived from the original on 16 March 2026. Retrieved 4 April 2026.
  63. ^ Corbet, Jonathan (24 July 2025). “Graphene OS: a security-enhanced Android build”. LWN.net. Archived from the original on 2 March 2026. Retrieved 4 April 2026.
  64. ^ Stöckel, Marc (25 November 2025). “GrapheneOS verlässt OVH: “Frankreich ist kein sicheres Land für Privacy-Projekte”“ [GrapheneOS is leaving OVH: “France is not a safe country for privacy projects”]. Golem.de. Archived from the original on 6 March 2026. Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  65. ^ Butler, Georgia (20 March 2026). “GrapheneOS migrates workloads off of OVH, cites issues with France’s digital privacy policy”. www.datacenterdynamics.com. Archived from the original on 31 December 2025. Retrieved 23 March 2026.
  66. ^ Speed, Richard (28 November 2025). “GrapheneOS bails on OVHcloud over France’s privacy stance”. The Register. Archived from the original on 17 December 2025.
  67. ^ Thierry, Gabriel (26 November 2025). ““Pays de plus en plus autoritaire”, GrapheneOS coupe les ponts avec la France après une polémique explosive” [”An increasingly authoritarian country”: GrapheneOS cuts ties with France following an explosive controversy]. ZDNET (in French). Archived from the original on 16 February 2026. Retrieved 23 March 2026.
  68. ^ “GrapheneOS will remain usable by anyone around the world without requiring personal information, identification or an account. GrapheneOS and our services will remain available internationally. If GrapheneOS devices can’t be sold in a region due to their regulations, so be it”. GrapheneOS Mastodon. 20 March 2026. Archived from the original on 24 March 2026. Retrieved 23 March 2026.
  1. ^ The developers have been referred to as the “GrapheneOS developers” or the “GrapheneOS project” on GrapheneOS’ frequently asked questions page.[1] The Canadian nonprofit organization “GrapheneOS Foundation”[2] was created “in March 2023 to handle the intake and distribution of donations”.[3]
  2. ^ Briefly known by the working title Android Hardening or AndroidHardening during development